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     ,             .        XX.               ,             ,         .          .               - .   ,        ,  .

            ,       , , ,        .          -        ,           .

                         ,     ,   ,    ,  ,    ,          ,       .       , ,    ,              .                ,   -         .      -       .    ,                 .

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 I

 





 1.   





1. Pacta sunt servanda


         ,      .       ,     ,        .         pacta sunt servanda (  ),     freedom of contract ( ).              ,      .

      .        ,             ,    ,         .

                 -      .

              ,      .   ,    ,       , ,       .      ,                 ,   .          .

,        ,                        ,     -           . , ,      ,    ,      ,     ?

          . 1.      ,             .   [1 -            ,  . .: K?tz H., Flessner A. European Contract Law. 1998. P. 7.]      ,        ,     , ..       [2 -                 XIX. .: K?tz H., Flessner A. European Contract Law. 1998. P. 7, 8.        . ,   (Flume)       ,            . .: Flume W. Rechtsgesch?ft. P. 7 (. : Beale H., Hartkamp A., Kotz H., Tallon D. Cases, Materials and Text on Contract Law. 2002. P. 116).].        ,      .        ,       .

 ,      ,     ,        ,     ,  ,           [3 -      .: Barnett R.E. Consent Theory of Contract // 86 Columbia Law Review. 1986. P. 272274.].

 ,     ,                ,   ,    ,           .    ,         ,                  .                .           ,   ,    ,              ,      [4 -       (Terr) :          ,    .    ,      ,    ?     ,      ?   ,       .       .             ?       ,       .    ,       ,                    (. : Beale H., Hartkamp A., Kotz H., Tallon D. Cases, Materials and Text on Contract Law. 2002. P. 119).].

,        -  ,            .

2.           ,             ,      ,      ( ).      :              ?              .                 ,    ,                .

,      pacta sunt servanda         . , .       [5 - Gordley J. The Philosophical Origins of Modern Contract Doctrine. 1991. P. 10, 11.].  XIII.      ,        ,       ,       .    ,             ,      ,             [6 - Thomas Aquinat. Summa Theoligica. IIII. Q. 88, Art. 3, 10 (     : www.gutenberg.org).].             [7 - Mehren A. Von. The French Civil Code and Contract: aComparative Analysis of Formation and Form // 15 Louisiana Law Review. 19541955. P. 702.].

,  XVII.,          . ,   ,               [8 -  . . ., 2001. . 99.].   ,              [9 - Pufendorf S. Of the Law of Nature and Nations. Book III. 1729. P. 243 (    : www.archive.org).].      [10 - Grotius H. On the Law of War and Peace. 2004. P. 95 ff.].         XVIII.          [11 -  .  .    //  .    . . 4. . 2. ., 1965. . 126127.].

             . , ,  ,           (, ).        (,  )            ,            ,              [12 -  .     //  . .  2. . 1. ., 1965. . 670681.].

          .                ,         ,                .

            - .     -   ,       ,                  [13 -  ..       :     - : .  . . . ., 2008. . 7.].            [14 - ., .: Fried C. Contract As Promise: aTheory of Contractual Obligation. 1981.  ,           ,   -    . .: Eisenberg M.A. The Theory of Contracts // The Theory of Contract Law. New Essays. 2001. P. 223235.].

        . , ,    ,             .      ,        ?[15 -   ,  ,  . .: Atiyah P.S. Promises, Morals and Law. 2003. P. 22.]          ,  ,       ,                ?[16 - Atiyah P.S. Promises, Morals and Law. 2003. P. 139.]   ,                  ,      ,      ?[17 - Ibid. P. 141, 142.]

                  ,            -  ,            [18 -  ,      ,                 . .:  .   . ., 1996. . 97.].    ,               [19 - Macneil I. The Many Futures of Contract // 47 Southern California Law Review. 1974. P. 691, 729.]. , ,    ,   ,             -           .              ( ),      (,    ),         (, -).

               ,           pacta sunt servanda                 .

3.          [20 - ., .: Gilmour G. The Death of Contract. 1995. P. 1.            ,   -         ,              ,  ,     (benefit-based contractual liability),   ,        ,        ,     ,      (reliance-based liability).   ,                      , ,   ,   .     ,   ,        .  .: Atiyah P.S. Essays on Contract. 2001. P. 58.       , ,       ,   1930- .      (Fuller L.L., Perdue W.R., Jr. The Reliance Interest in Contract Damages // 46 Yale Law Journal. 19361937. P. 52 ff.; Fuller L.L., Perdue W.R., Jr. The Reliance Interest in Contract Damages: 2 // 46 Yale Law Journal. 19361937. P. 419).],          ,       ,     ,   ,    . ,          ,            ,    ,    ,           [21 -     ..   .: Atiyah P.S. Essays on Contract. 2001. P. 58.].

  ,        ,         ,   ,            .   ,        ,       ( ,       ).                  .

            ,     ,           .       ,        .     ,                .

   ,              ,     ,     ,       .            - .

 ,     ,           , , ,  -                 -      .  ,        ,               ,     ,   ,     .

4.      ,           ,  ,           ,           ,       .              ,       ,     .

        ,                     ,     ,          .  ,                  .      ,     ,       .     ,        ,  ,              .           ,          .   ,     ,      ,   ,                ,          ,   ,          ,   ,   (,        ).

      ,         ,          .         ,               .

5.    ,                      (expectations) .    ,   ,                ,            ,    .

                  .                  ,     .         ,   ,      ,    ,    (      ).

        ,       ,          ,      (   )  ,   -         ,      .           ,      .           ,                   ,    [22 - Holmes O.W. The Path of the Law. 1897. P. 11.].

           . ,     ,  ,            ,                          - .              ,  ,   ,                ,        !

6.,         ,                   ( )[23 - ., .: Schwartz A., Scott R.E. Contract Theory and Limits of Contract Law // 113 Yale Law Journal. 20032004. P. 541 ff.].        ,        .    ,             ,       .

      XVIII.  ,       ,      .               .                ,        (specific investments)             . ,       ,          .                  -    ,    ,            [24 -         ,          (hold-up problem).  :               .           ,   ,    ,        .  .:  ..,  ..,  ..   : , ,  , . ., 2006. . 340342.].

      ,               .    (   [25 -     .:  . . ., 2007. . 102110.]),       ,                     .            ,       ,    ,    ,         ,     ,            ()[26 -              ,          .          .:  . . ., 2006.].            (,   ,    ),          , ,   ,      (,     ,         ..),    [27 -  ..  . ., 2012. . 189.].

     ,  ,   .      ,    ,  .           .                 .     ,      ,           (  ,     ,     )         .       ,            (, ,   ,         )[28 -   :      (  )         .     ,      ,    .              -    ,         .          ,         , ,      .          ,                  ,          .    ,        , ,               ,  ,   .     ,   .          ( . ,     . ., 1997. . 52, 55).              .:  .,  .,  .    :       . ., 2011. . 48, 49.].

         ,                 ,                .              .                   ,      .   ,                  [29 -   .  :   . 2- . , 2008. . 189.].

   pacta sunt servanda          ,         .

  -            , ,        .

     ,    -     ,     .

   ,             ,        .        ,      ,  ,          (   -).          pacta sunt servanda   (,  ),             [30 - ,        ,   ,  ,     ,  ,                  (   )   (.: Schwartz A., Scott R.E. Contract Theory and Limits of Contract Law // 113 Yale Law Journal. 20032004. P. 546; Kaplow L., Shavell S. Fairness versus Welfare: Notes on the Pareto Principle, Preferences and Distributive Justice // 32 Journal of Legal Studies. 2003. P. 331 ff). ,            - ,  ,     .                                 (.: Dorff M.B. Why Welfare Depends on Fairness: aReply to Kaplow and Shavell // 75 California Law Review. 20012002. P. 847 ff).].

    [31 - ., .: Kimel D. From Promise to Contract: Towards a Liberal Theory of Contract. 2003; Barnett R. The Consent Theory of Contract // 86 Columbia Law Review. 1986. P. 269 ff.],           ,       XIXXX.    ,                        [32 -   ,  ,     . .: Atiyah P.S. Promises, Morals and Law. 2003. P. 123; Craswell R. Contract Law, Default Rules and the Philosophy of Promising // 88 Michigan Law Review. 19891990. P. 528, 529; Eisenberg M.A. The Theory of Contracts // The Theory of Contract Law. New Essays. 2001. P. 240, 264; K?tz H., Flessner A. European Contract Law. 1998. P. 79; Weir T. Contracts in Rome and England // 66 Tulane Law Review. 1992. P. 1647.].           - ,        ,      -     .

       ,                ,        ,    ,                      .

,          ,  ,             .   , ,              ,    ,     - (  ),    - . ,               ,       ,      ,        ,      ,     pacta sunt servanda,           .              .

,               .          ,     -    ,  ,   ,        pacta sunt servanda[33 -         .: Atiyah P.S. Essays on Contract. 2001. P. 148.].




2.        


       .   ,     ,        .            .        .            ?          .

                     ,          , ,        .     pacta sunt servanda       (   )  ,                       .

 ,         :              ?            ,               ,   ,       .

       ,            .      ,        .           ,  ,                .    ,      . ,  , , ,          ,   ,          ,              ,     .    ,      ,   . 1. 1062   ,  ,   ,    .              ,           .       ,     ,    ,       ,           [34 -            .: Hermalin B.E., Katz A.W., Craswell R. Contract Law // Handbook of Law and Economics. Vol. I / Ed. by A.M. Polinsky and S. Shavell. 2007. P. 19.].

,              ,           . , ,            ,        ,                (. 10 ).              ,       , ..      ,   pacta sunt servanda.      ,            ,        [35 -       25  2008. 127 (. 9).].         .        .

    ,    ,              ,         ,    ,      .

               .         .                     ,        .               .   - (, . )      -             pacta sunt servanda[36 -  .   (2008), . 14 (    : http:// libertynews.ru/node/142).].                    .                .

             ,        [37 -       .:  ..        //   . 2006. 1 ( ).].     , ,     ,     ,                  .       ,       ,         ,      .  ,                ,      ,      ,     .

      ,      ,            ,       ,         .     ,        ,         ,              [38 -      ,  ,          . ., .: Angelo A.H., Ellinger E.P. Unconscionable Contracts: A Comparative Study of the Approaches in England, France, Germany and the United States // 14 International and Comparative Law Journal. 19911992. P. 455.       ,          ,          (.: Str?mholm. The Freedom to Contract  a Complex Cluster of Rules // Scandinavian Studies in Law. 1989. P. 208).]     .

          ,          . ,         ,                    .




3.      


       ,    ,           .                 ,        .      ,            .   ,      ,   ,      ,      ,    ,           .       .

          ,             .  ,    ,      ,       ,                 .            .




4.      


          ,  ,      prima facie         -      - ,  -                .

     ,     ,   ,   ,       ,          .  , ,              ,          ,   ,   ,      .         (,    ),            (,           ).             ,          ,         .

      ,         ,     ,                                 (..  , ,        ).

,       ,                (,    ).                 -        - ,         . ,         ,  (1)              ,    ,  (2)      ,  -        .

  ,       (..        ),              ,        .




5.      


,        .      .      ,        ,    .     .        .    .

     - ,       .

-      ,  ,   ,        ,    ,    -    .        .   ,     ,  - ,   ,     ,  ,  .  ,      200    ,        ,          ,         (   ).

                .          -          .                                ad hoc.  ,                 [39 - ., .: Schwarcz S.L. Rethinking Freedom of Contract: A Bankruptcy Paradigm // 77 Texas Law Review. 19981999. P. 515 ff; Schwartz A. A Contract Theory Approach to Business Bankruptcy // 107 Yale Law Journal. 1998. P. 1807 ff.].  ,                [40 - LoPucki L.M. Contract Bankruptcy: A Reply to Alan Schwartz // 109 Yale Law Journal. 19992000. P. 317.].        , ..  ,         ?   :          ,  ,         ,                    ,                     ,      ?    ,     ,         ,      ,     ,                   ,         .

             ,     numerus clausus    ,     ,   .              ,                         [41 -       .: Von Bar C., Drobnig U. The Interaction of Contract Law and Tort and Property Law in Europe: A Comparative Study. 2004.       numerus clausus         .: Merrill T.W., Smith H.E. Optimal Standardization in the Law of Property: The Numerus Clausus Principle // 110 Yale Law Journal. 20002001. P. 1ff; Hansmann H., Kraakman R. Property, Contract, and Verification: The Numerous Clausus Problem and the Divisibility of Rights // 31 The Journal of Legal Studies. 2002. P. 373.              .: Merryman J.H. Policy, Autonomy, and the Numerus Clausus in Italian and American Property Law // 12 American Journal of Comparative Law. 1963. P. 224 ff.].

           .      1980- .           [42 - ., .: Bebchuk L.A. The Debate on Contractual Freedom in Corporate Law // 89 Columbia Law Review. 1989. P. 1395 ff.].   [43 - . : Easterbrook F.H., Fischel D.R. The Economic Structure of Corporate Law. 1991; Chefins B.R. The Trajectory of (Corporate Law) Scholarship. 2004.]        (     )                         [44 -       .. . ., .:  .    :       //  . 2009. 6. . 1319;  .     //   . . 9. 2009. 1. . 462  .].

,                  .                .

  ,           ,  -               .

                       ,  , , ,              ,                  [45 -              .: Scott R.E., Stuntz W.J. Plea Bargaining as Contract // 101 Yale Law Journal. 1992. P. 1909 ff.].

           - ,            .         , ,    ,             ,          .




 2.   -    





1.   - 


                .

    -         .         (. 1 421)      ,      .  ,              .

          .

            ,       ,   ,    . ,   ,        ( ,      ,            ),    ,        ,               [46 -     -   .:  ..     :   //   . 2010. 4. . 670; 5. . 656.].

     (, ,         )           ,          de lege ferenda      .       ,       -       ,  ,   ,              .  ,                    ,   ,        .                -   ,         .    ,                   (             ).

    .      ,       ,           ,      .                     [47 - Bork R. The Antitrust Paradox. 1993. P. 50.].           .  ,       (,    ..),      , ,    ,      ,   ,   ,     .  ,      ( )         ,   -  ,            .

           .     XIX.,          ,                  .          ,         ,           .   ,    -            ,       ,      ,     .                     XX.,       [48 - Abegg A., Thatcher A. Review Essay  Freedom of Contract in the 19


Century: Mythology and Silence of the Sources. Sibylle Hofers Freiheit ohne Grenzen? Privatrechtstheoretische Diskussionen im 19. Jahrhundert // German Law Journal. 2004. Vol. 5. 1. P. 104105.].

, ,   XIX. ,            ,     ,             ,     ,     ,    ,           XX.[49 - Wagner G. Mandatory Contract Law: Functions and Principles in Light of the Proposal For a Directive on Consumer Rights // Erasmus Law Review. Vol. 3. Issue 1. 2010. P. 49, 50.]

         .   ,        ,                    - (,   ) , ..    ,          ,             .

            -  -       -       .                    ,  ,       .

        ,             ,   .           (),  ,         ()    ,        .

    . -              XX.      .. ,               -  ,        .    ,   ,     - ,  -    [50 - .:  ..      //    :  . ., 2010. . 3187;  .          //  . . 562601.].              ,    .      [51 - ..      -        ,       (.:  ..      //    :  . ., 2010. . 42, 43).],     .            ,        ,      - - ,          ,       .

             ,        ,  , .        ,             ,              .  ,   100   .. ,       ,      -            .     -           .

        ,             , ,                       ,        ,    3040  ,           .   ,    , ,   ,         .

      ,  -                  ,               ,        ,     -       - (  ) ,    .

                       .       ,    ,              .   ,        ,    , -,      .      ,            (      )          -  (  ,        ).      , ,        ,       .  ,       .                 ,   ,                 .  ,      ,  ,                     ,    - ,     .   ,       ,   .

    ,          ,           ,     ,       [52 -  .    . ., 2010. . 6, 7.].   ,            ,         . ,            -         . , ,    (    )                       ,        .      -                  .    , ,        .

     ,         ..     [53 - ,   (.:  . .    : . ., 2002),        ,     .        ,        ( ,  ,  ,        ..).          ,      .].   ,     ,              ,     .     -    ,  ,        ,    ,      .          ,          ,     . ,  ,           .            - .     ,       ,        [54 - Hogg M. Promises and Contract Law. Comparative Perspectives. 2011. P. 173.].

    ,   -                , , ,       ,                   .

, ,        ,   laesio enormis        ,     XIX.    XX.                  ,   ,      ,      ,  .       XX.        ,    ,    ,               ,        .         ,                XIX.,   XX.          ,     .

  ,            -,    ,          ,         .                   .         ,        .     ,  (   )             ,     -  . , ,    ,     (  )           ,                   -    ,            ,          , , ,         ,    .

 , ,                ,   ,    ,           .   ,          ,      ,    , ,    ,       ,                 de lege ferenda.       ,    .                   ,      .

  ,                      .               . , ,         - (   -)       .   ,      ,        ,    ,  ,          ,       ,       -         ,      (            )[55 -         (   , ,   .)      -     . ., .: Dawson J.P. The Oracles of the Law. 1968. P. 458; Stein P. Roman Law in European History. 1999. P. 122; Merryman J.H., Prez-Perdomo R. The Civil Law Tradition. An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America. 3-rd ed. 2007. P. 65; Reimann M. Nineteenth Century German Legal Science // 31, Boston College Law Review. 19891900. P. 892; Wieacker F. A History of Private Law in Europe. 2003. P. 349.].

          .            (    1930- .)    ,   ,     ,               ,    ,          .      XIX.   ,        ,             - , ,                  .

         .        ,          ,           ,                 .             ,                            .      -      ,        .

           ,   .     ,       .                 ,      -   .              (,    ,   ) ,      ,   .  ,    prima facie        - ,          ,       [56 - .: Kennedy D. The Political Stakes in Merely Technical Issues of Contract Law // European Review of Private Law 1: 728 (19; 14, 25). 2001. P. 728.].

 ,               .          -             .               -     de lege ferenda,          ,    ,       de lege lata.

             ,    .       -    ,                 .            .     3040 .                 .

   ,      ,         ,         .

, ,    .           ,         (, ,    ..).   ,                     ,         .  ,           ,             .

     .   ,               .    ,     ,              .  -             ,         . , ,        ,  ,   ,     .       .  ,    ,            () ,             .    .        .      ,        ,     ,      ,             .

              .      ,         ,         .   -  ,     .  - 100200     ,                   .                    -   ,            .




2.  


     -    ,   ,   , .

      ,     ,       , ,    ,   -  [57 -  . .   ,   . ., 1978. . 458.].      .     ,            ,               .       ,               ,                 .

   XIX.               laissez-faire,          -,                      -      .

           .                 .  ,  ,     ,   ,          ,         .       ,                   ,  ,    ,      ,     ,  , , ,   ,        ,     [58 -   .. ,   :        . ., 2006. . 23.].       ,                     ,    ,      (   1970- .)     ,     ,                 ,          [59 -             .  ( ..      //    :  . ., 2010. . 36).].

 ,     .             ,                -      .      ,        ,                       - .

   ,            ,            .    ,           ,          (  ,     XIX.).  :                  ,          (   ,    ,     ).

  ,  ,       terra incognita,          ,            ,      ,   ,       [60 -  ..      //    :  . ., 2010. . 169, 170.]. ,       .                  .    ,               .    ,     ,        de lege ferenda,   ,   .    ,          ,    ,      ,      ,         ..

     ,     ,                ,                   .                             .           .   ,        (     ),         .

       ,            ,               ,        .               .

   ,           ,            .

  -                  .       (, ,    )   ,     ,    ,           .  ,                [61 - ., .: The Handbook of Law & Economics / Ed. by M.A. Polinsky and S. Shavell. 2007. P. 1857.].            [62 - ., .: Wagner G. Mandatory Contract Law: Functions and Principles in Light of the Proposal For a Directive on Consumer Rights // Erasmus Law Review. Vol. 3. Issue 1. 2010. P. 47 ff; Cserne P. Freedom of Choice and Paternalism in Contract Law: aLaw and Economics Perspective // 2006 German Working Papers in Law and Economics. 2006. P. 6.]. , ,             .   .    [63 -  ., ʸ .        . . 2. ., 2000. . 831 (       - ,  -,    ..).     ,  . ʸ           ,        ,            ,    .         .: Kirstein R. Law and Economics in Germany (    : http://encyclo.find-law.com/0330book.pdf).],             .

      , , ,         ,          XX. ( ,                   ),       - .    ,             ;         [64 - Coase R. Law and Economics at Chicago // 36 Journal of Law and Economics. 1993. P. 254.].                       .   ,      ,       [65 -   .  .            . ., 2004. . 200.].                            .

             .  -           ,       XIX.,       .     ,   ,           ,      .

, ,      ,                .    ,      ,    [66 - . : Veljanovski C.G. Economic Principles of Law. 2007. P. 19.].       .           .  ,     ,        ,      100  300  [67 -  ..  . 2- . ., 2004. . 57.].

  .  ,                    .                 ,  200  ,       ,        ,   ,   .           ,         ,         ,        .

                .       .     ,       ,    ,       ,     ,     ,          ,   .  ,        ,         -    - .

    , , ,          ,    ,  ,     (,  )     (,    )        ,       .  , , , -        ,                 ,          .

    ,       ,       . , , ,     - (  , ,    ).                   , ,         ,        ,      .       ,            ,     ,   -      ,      .    ,               ,              ,   ,     ,  ,   .              ,          .

           ,      -   .       - .             ,  -          ,     ,             .




3.        


  ,               ,      -  .      -      -.                ,        ,     ,        (, ,  , ,   ..).

   ,   (   )                . ,  ,         ()   ,         ,           .    ,      - ,  ,  . , ,             .                 .    ,  .




 II

      - 





 1.      XVIII 





1.     



 

          .       ,           , ,  ,      ,    .      ,      ,        (  ),    .                . ,                ,         ,       , ,    ,    ,    , ,    .     ,        [68 -     .  ,        (,            ),    ,     ,   ,           .                      ,      ,   .     ,  ,         .     ,     ,       ,  ,    .  ,         ,         . .:  .   . ., 2003. . 44.].

       ,       ,    ,       ,    .          ,    (  )  .                 ,    ,      .                    .

                             .          .     ,             .           ,    [69 -  .  :      . ., 2002. . 67.].

 ,            ,         .   . ,      :          ,  [70 - Pareto V. Manual of Political Economy. 1971. P. 341.].           ,   .    ,        ,      ,        ,    ,     ,       ,  [71 -  .   . , 2006. . 6, 7.].

         ,  ,     ,           .  ,             ,        ,        ,     ,                ,                      .  ,          ,                          .

,       ,      -      .                 ,             -      .           .        ,        .       ,     ,   ,         .

           .       ,       ,    [72 -  ,                    ,    ,    .           ,   . .:  .  :      . ., 2002. . 84, 85.],      .       ,    ,   ,          ,  ,  ,    .   -   ,    .    ,    ,             ,       [73 -  .        //   .  2. . 1. ., 1991. . 97.].

,             ,      , ,    ,        .               ,      ,     .   , , , ,             .




            .  II. ..,   ,          .        ,  ,   ,   ,    ,       .

         ,              .  ,        ,       :     ;          ,         ,    [74 -  .  . . I. ., 1936. . 801.].

 ,        ,   [75 -  .  . . I. ., 1936. . 802.].  ,        ,     [76 -  .].      . ,         [77 -  ..      . ., 2001. . 51.].

          .   ,  ,      .     [78 -  .  .  3. . 1: :      . ., 2005.],    . [79 -  .     . ., 1990.]      ,       .   ,          .

           . , ,    ,  . ,       laissez faire[80 -  ..      . ., 2001. . 82.].    - , ,  ,     ,     [81 -  . . 154.].

               .       , ,     , ,   , , ,  ,  ,         [82 -  .  :      . ., 2002. . 67, 68.].     ,       .

  IV.         ,       ,  ,  ,  ,       .

    ,                  , ,      ..                                 [83 -  ..      . ., 2001. . 96, 159.].

                [84 -              :  .       .           .        ,  , ,         ,         ,      ,           ,          .     ,         ,    .     .      .           :   ,       ;    .          ( .   :    . ., 2009. . 226, 227).].    ,              [85 -  .   . ., 2008. . 681, 682.].

      ,      ,      ,     -   ,          .     ,           ;           ,          .     ,       [86 -  .         . ., 2001. . 59.].

    (  ) ,        ,      , , , ,            [87 -  ..      . ., 2001. . 172.].

          ,    [88 - .:  .      .  7. ., 2004.]     .

   ,  ,           ,     ,              [89 - .:   .  :    . , 2008. . 721;  ..      . ., 2001. . 190;  .    . ., 1995. . 251; Bartlett B. How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome // Cato Journal. 1994. Vol. 4. 2.].            - .    ,           ,    ,   , ,   .   , ,  ,         ,         ,       ,  ,         .




                      .      [90 -   .  . ., 2008. . 50.].

     , , , ,         ,     .     (,    ,  ,   ,   ,         ,      ..),     .

         ,     .     ,        [91 -  ..    :  . ., 2010. . 103.].                ,      ,          .

          ,   .    ,         (,     )[92 -  . . 104.].

           .    ,        ,        ,    ,      ,    ,     ,             ..[93 -  . . 101.]

                   .        ,   ,           .           .        ,      .

    ,  ,    ,   ,     ,               .

      ,                           .

            ,           ,             .            [94 -  .  . ., 2010. . 119.    ,       ,    .: Rothbard M.N. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Vol. I: Economic Thought Before Adam Smith. 2006. P. 15 ff.       .: Gordley J. Equality in Exchange // 69 California Law Review. 1981. P. 1587 ff.           . .: Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica. IIII. Q. 77. Art. 1 (    : www.gutenberg.org).]  ,  ,    [95 -  .   . ., 1995. . 1820.].

,                . , ,            ,    ,               ,                ,                 ,         ,       ,    [96 - Rothbard M.N. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Vol. I: Economic Thought Before Adam Smith. 2006. P. 5195.].   ,    ,     XVIXVII.       (  ,     .),           .        ,    ,          ,                [97 - . :    .   :    . ., 2009. . 4352; Rothbard M.N. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Vol. I: Economic Thought Before Adam Smith. 2006. P. 97133.].

        ,     ,                      .        .

 ,         ,             - .           .  ,      ,               .       ,    (, , , )     ,     (   )       . ,     ,   XIX.               [98 -  .  . ., 2010. . 27.].

 ,   XVIIXVIII.,            ,          - ,       .     ,          .




2.   


                  ,                   .             ,    ,     .               .

          [99 -              ,           , .:  .    . ., 1996.]  ,           .    .   ,    ,       ,         ,     ,      [100 -   .. ,   :        . ., 2006. . 485.].        .  ,           ,    [101 -  . . ., 2006. . 19.]. ,               ,            .

     ,             ,       ,         ,     ,      .             .        .           [102 -  .,  .,  .    :       . ., 2011. . 58.].              .

               ,   , ,   .     ,    .  ,  ,    ,     ,    ,        .               .             ,           .

                       ,   , , , ,   ,   ,    . ,        ,                    [103 - Atiyah P.S. The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract. 1979. P. 76.].

   ,         (, )       (   )             .         ,       ,            .           .

,                     .                  .               .      (, . )       [104 -  ..      . ., 2001. . 93.]




  .


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      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



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104


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