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Copyright  2014 by Sven Beckert

All rights reserved. Originally published in hardcover in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Penguin Random House LLC, New York, in 2014

      Alfred A. Knopf,  The Knopf Doubleday Group,  Penguin Random House, LLC

   , 2018


* * *










    , 1873 .

  



   1860             .    ,    ,       ,      .                  ,    .   -         ,        .            ;        .

     .                   .   ,  , , , , , ,    .      ,     ,  , ,         [1 - The Thirty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce for the Year 1859 (Manchester: Cave & Sever, 1860), 18, 19, 22, 23, 33, 34, 38, 39, 45.].

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               .          ;           . ,       ,   ,    indiennes,    , , ,   .               .  ,           ,   .                .       , ,                .        .      ,      .

    ,                   ,  1860    ,         ,     ,      ,    .      ,         ,             ,   , ,            .  ,         ,    ,           .  1860   ,     ,            ,   ,    ,   .

  1860      ,   .  ,     ,    ,        .  1960    -    , ,    ,        .  ,              .        , ,            .  1963    ,       ,     [2 - Liverpool. By Order of the Liverpool Cotton Association Ltd., Catalogue of the Valuable Club Furnishings etc. to be Sold by Auction by Marsh Lyons & C?, Tuesday, 17th December 1963, Liverpool Records O?ce, Liverpool, UK.].  ,     ,    , [3 - I.E. Horn, La crise cotonniere et les textiles indigenes (Paris: Dentu, 1863), 6.].

    ,         :      . ,     , -       .    ,          ,      -          .          .       .     .    .      .    ,   ,   ,     ,   ,     ,  ,   ,   ,      (,       1887    ,   ,         ).      ,     .

   ,  1000-  1900 ,        .        ,  -      .    ,   2013        123  ,       ,  ,         .       ,        ;  ,      .            ,      .    ,    , -      ,     .     ,      Walmart. ,         ,    ,             .          :      [4 - Monthly Economic Letter: U.S. and Global Market Fundamentals, Cotton Incorporated,  23  2013., http://www.cottoninc.com/corporate/Mar-ket-Data/MonthlyEconomicLetter/; The Fabric of Our Lives, http://www.thefabricofourlives.com/.].

 ,      .     ,    .      ,       ,     . - ,       ,     ,     ,  ,    .     .    ,  ,    ,          .     :   ,     ,      .       700    ,    1,6    [5 -   Fast Facts About American Wool, American Sheep Industry Association  10  2013., http://www.sheepusa.org/get_?le/?le_id/5ab52656e6d6e32821aa9f177bf05876,     (    )    7,3 .              ,          . Government of South Australia, Grazing livestock a sustainable and productive approach, Adelaide & Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resource Management Board,  10  2013., www.amlrnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/2/landholders_info/grazing_web.pdf; European Union, CIA  The World Factbook,  16  2013., https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ee.html.      ,         ,        .       ,      ,        ,   CIA World Factbook  4 324 782 2.].

    .                .   .  XIX  ,    ,          .

 ,   ,                 ?   , ,  1700   ,     -     , ,  . ,  1780         -   ,     .    .           .         .   ,      ,        ,     .               ; ,        .

 ,    ,  1835    ,       .  ,          ,     .  .  , ,   ,       ,     ,        . , ,          .      ,              XVIII     .        컠   ,        ,      ,    ,      .     ,   ,  .   , ,          :    ,      [6 - Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher, and P.Jackson, 1835), 56; .: Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000);  ,  . ,       (:   , 2017).].

              ,        . ,          :            ,   , ,    ,      ,   ,   .      , ,       .      .   , ,     ,    ,   ,    . ,        ,   ,     ,  ,        ,      .    ,            .   , ,   , ,          ,      ,     , ,              ,   .   ,       [7 - Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton, 1998);  , ,   .    (: , 2009); David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998); Niall Ferguson, Civilization: The West and the Rest (New York: Allen Lane, 2011);  , .       (: , 2014); Robert Brenner, Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe, Past and Present, no. 70 (February 1976): 3075; Robert Brenner, The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism, Past and Present, no. 97 (November 1982): 16113; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Pantheon, 1963).].

     ,      ,         .     ,      ,   .  , ,        ,     ,             .

    ,     ,    ,   .     ,       .   ,  ,          ,    ,   1780-     .   ,      ,     .      ,   ;           ,           .         ,  ,   ,             XIX   .       ,          ,         .        ,      ,       XIX .

    ,     ,          ,   .     ,      ,            .     ,     ,          ,   .     ,         ,    ,    ,                ,              -   .          ,    ,             ,      .

   ,        .         , ,    .           ,      ,       ,  ,    ,    , ,       [8 -       ,  Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (New York: Russell & Russell, 1961); Rafael de Bivar Marquese, As desventuras de um conceito: Capitalismo historico e a historiogra?a sobre escravidao brasileira, Revista de Historia 169 (July/December 2013), 223253; Philip McMichael, Slavery in the Regime of Wage Labor: Beyond Paternalism in the U.S. Cotton Culture, Social Concept 6 (1991): 1028; Barbara L. Solow and Stanley L. Engerman, British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery: The Legacy of Eric Williams (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Norton, 1978); Joseph E. Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).].             .

   ,         ,     ,       ,       ,    ,  ,     ,        .         ,       ,      ,         , ,    ,        .   ,         ,       , ,       .         .   ,              ,   , ,           .         ,        .             ,   ,   ,   .             .

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     ,     1780-   ,    XIX ,      ,          ,        .    ,         .    ,             ,    ,       .    ,        ,         .    XIX             ,  ,    ,      . ,   ,   ,          .                 .                 .

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 XIX         .         .      1860  Cotton Supply Reporter:      ,       ,                 ໻[9 - Cotton Supply Reporter, no. 37 (March 1, 1860): 33.].

   ,       .   ,      .             ,     .       G. barbadense,   ,            . ,     G. arboretum,          ,      .   XIX         G. hirsutum,     .  ,    ,      ,   1836 ,       ,      . , -  ,      .       ;  .          .  , ,    ,  ,       ,     [10 - Andrew Ure, The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain Systematically Investigated, and Illustrated by 150 Original Figures, vol. 1 (London: Charles Knight, 1836), 6768.].

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        ,     ,      .        ,     .  ,      ,      ,        ,        [12 - E.J. Donnell, Chronological and Statistical History of Cotton (New York: James Sutton & C?, 1872), v.].

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,    XIX ,    ,      :    ,   ,    ,   .  ,             ,    .   ,              ,        ,         .            ,   ,    .     .  ,        .        ,      , ,       ,     .        ; ,          .     1835         (History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain),  :                 ,    ,      ,         [14 - Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 530531.].         ,     .

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 1

  





   



500         , ,    ,   ,  , ,   . ,  -    -  ,   ,    ,     .     ,       ,      ,          ,   ,      ,       .    .       ,   .    ichcatl: .

     ,   ,     ,              ,       ,          .       ,       ,            .     ,     ,        ,          .          ,    ,   ;

    ,     ,            ()       ,    .    ,   .      ,    -  - .      ,    ,   .        ,         .   1518  ,     ,    II   - (  115  ), 3200     4800               [18 - ,    ,    G. hirsutum Palmeri,  ,   ,     ,       .    C. Wayne Smith and J. Tom Cothren, eds., Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 11; Angus Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2001), 263; Frances F. Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico: Production, Distribution and Uses, Mexican Studies 3 (1987): 241?.; Joseph B. Mount-joy, Prehispanic Cultural Development Along the Southern Coast of West Mexico, in Shirley Gorenstein, ed., Greater Mesoamerica: The Archeology of West and Northwest Mexico (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000), 106; Donald D. Brandt, The Primitive and Modern Economy of the Middle Rio Balsas, Guerrero and Michoacan, Eighth American Scienti?c Congress, Section 8, History and Geography (Washington, DC, 1940), Abstract;      XVI  .: Jose Rodriguez Vallejo, Ixcatl, el algodon mexicano (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1976), 64.].

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 ,   ,        ,           ,    3235    37   .         .   ,       50     , ,  ,   60. ,    ,   ,        200      20  25    ,           ,       .            ,    .      160  200 [20 -  ()   Gavin Wright, The Political Economy ofthe Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Norton, 1978), 145,  Jason Clay, World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2004), 28487.].

       ,   , ,    ,    ,     .   ,   ,    ,   ,              ,   ,  .         ,         .   ,    ,   , ,   ,  , ,   .

     ,          .  ,     Homo sapiens                 .    ,   ,    ,           .   ,        30   .       12   ,             .                      [21 - Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kaysar, and Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of Pedicu-lus humanus and the Origin of Clothing, Current Biology 13 (August 19, 2003): 141415;        .: Eli-so Kvabadze et al., 30,000 Year-Old Wild Flax Fibres, Science 11 (September 2009): 1359.].

           .        ,      ,  12   .  4   ,   ,      .         7                .                .           [22 - Almut Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben: Entwicklung von Technik und Arbeit im Textil-gewerbe (Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1981), 32, 31; .: Kleidung, in Johannes Hoops, Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, vol. 16 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2000), 60325; Mary Schoeser, World Textiles: A Concise History (New York: Thames & Hudson World of Art, 2003), 20; Kleidung, in Max Ebert, ed., Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, vol. 6 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1926), 38094; Harry Bates Brown, Cotton: History, Species, Varieties, Morphology, Breeding, Culture, Diseases, Marketing, and Uses (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938), 1.].

   , ,       .  5      ,   ,        .    ,     ,        ,   .                .              ,         ,    .                ,  ,    ,       : , , ,      ,    .

                  .         . ,   ,      .       ,    .    ,  -     .     ,  ,         ,         .   ,      ,             .    ,  ,         .  ,   1637 ,      , ,    ,    ,       .  ,  ,    ,      ,        ,      [23 - ., : T. W. Rhys Davids, trans., Vinaya Texts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), 168; Georg Buehler, trans., The Sacred Laws of the Aryas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1882), 165, 169, 170; Vijaya Ramaswamy, Textiles and Weavers in South India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 1, 57; Doran Ross, ed., Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1998), 77; Frank Goldtooth,   Stanley A. Fishler, In the Beginning: A Navaho Creation Myth (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1953), 16; Aileen OBryan, The Dine: Origin Myths of the Navaho Indians, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 163 (Washington, DC: Government Printing O?ce, 1956), 38; Francesca Bray, Textile Production and Gender Roles in China, 10001700, Chinese Science 12 (1995): 116; Anthony Winterbourne, When the Norns Have Spoken: Fate in Germanic Paganism (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2004), 96.].

        ,     .  ,       10  20 .            G. hirsutum,  G. barbadense,  G. herbaceum   G. arboretum.    ,   ,    ,          .   90%       G. hirsutum,     .        .    ,    ,             ,        ,              .      ,            .       ,    ,       .         ,         ,    XIX           [24 - C. L. Brubaker et al., The Origin and Domestication of Cotton, in C. Wayne Smith and J. Tom Cothren, eds., Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 4, 56, 12, 17, 22; Wafaa M. Amer and Osama A. Momtaz, Historic Background of Egyptian Cotton (2600 BC AD 1910), Archives ofNatural History 26 (1999): 219.].

     ,      .  1929        -,     ,     3250  2750   ..  ,   ,  5000   ..             .  ,   1500  1200   ..,       .           :    (484425   ..)       ,   445   ..,          ,       [25 - Thomas Robson Hay and Hal R. Taylor, Cotton, in William Darrach Halsey and Emanuel Friedman, eds., Colliers Encyclopedia, with Bibliography and Index (New York: Macmillan Educational Co., 1981), 387; A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th ed., revised by J. R. Harris (London: Edward Arnold, 1962), 147; Richard H. Meadow, The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Northwestern South Asia, in David R. Harris, ed., The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia (London: UCL Press, 1996), 396;       .: S. V. Puntambekar and N. S. Varadachari, Hand-Spinning and Hand-Weaving: An Essay (Ahmedabad: All India Spinners Association, 1926), 19; James Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (London: Simpkin, Marshall & C?, 1860), 1, 23; Brown, Cotton, 2; . : Herodotus, The Histories, ed. A. R. Burn, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt, rev. ed., Penguin Classics (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1972), 245; . : Arno S. Pearse, The Cotton Industry ofIndia, Being the Report of the Journey to India (Manchester: Taylor, Garnett, Evans, 1930), 15; J. Forbes Royle, On the Culture and Commerce of Cotton in India and Elsewhere: With an Account of the Experiments Made by the Hon. East India Company up to the Present Time (London: Smith, Elder & C?, 1851), 116?.].

        XIX                 .   ,     ,   ,        .                .          XIX    ,    .    ,      ,        (    ,    ),        (   )  ,           ,   [26 - Brown, Cotton, 5; Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher, and P. Jackson, 1835), 6570; .: Prasannan Parthasarathi, Cotton Textiles in the Indian Subcontinent, 12001800, in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 12001850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 2325.].

       : XIII         1700    ,           ,            .   600   ,        , ,              ,      ,   .   ,   [27 - H. Wescher, Die Baumwolle im Altertum, in Ciba-Rundschau 45 (June 1940): 1635; Alwin Oppel, Die Baumwolle (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1902), 2067; . : Clinton G. Gilroy, The History of Silk, Cotton, Linen, Wool, and Other Fibrous Substances (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1845), 334; .: Marco Polo, Travels of Marco Polo (Westminster, MD: Modern Library, 2001), 174; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 56, 58.].

    ,   ,   .      ,              .    4000 ,        ,      . ,         .         ,  2400   ..,     16001500   ..     1532     ,         .       ,   ,   -        ,      [28 - A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), 48; M. D. C. Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton: The Fibre of Two Worlds and Many Ages (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1924), 46; Amer and Momtaz, Historic Background, 212; Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 209; William H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru (Westminster, MD: Modern Library, 2000), 51, 108, 300.].

        ,                .     ,     V  ,     .   ,     ,   .   ,      ,   3400   ..,    ,    ,    1200  1500   ..  ,     ,    632   ..,   ,    ,   , ,  100   .. 300  ..             ,   ,          1350 .       ,       .                      [29 - Gilroy, History of Silk, 33132; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 353; Barbara L. Stark, Lynette Heller, and Michael A. Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth: Mesoamerican Economic Change from the Perspective of Cotton in South-Central Veracruz, Latin American Antiquity 9 (March 1978): 9, 25, 27; Crawford, Heritage, 32, 35; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 355; Barbara Ann Hall, Spindle Whorls and Cotton Production at Middle Classic Matacapan and in the Gulf Lowlands, in Barbara L. Stark and Philip J. Arnold III, eds., Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gufl Lowlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997), 117, 133, 134.].

       XVI     .    ,     -,   XVII       ,         ,     .  ,     ,   ,  ,   ,  ,        .  ,       116  ,        1816 .       ,      ,    .    ,        ,  ,        ,       [30 - Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor, History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza, 1st English edition, translated from the 2nd Spanish edition by Robert D. Wood (Culver City, CA: Labyrinthos, 1983), 197; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 23536, 239; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 356; R. B. Handy, History and General Statistics of Cotton, in The Cotton Plant: Its History, Botany, Chemistry, Culture, Enemies, and Uses, prepared under the supervision of A. C. True, United States Department of Agriculture, O?ce of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 33 (Washington, DC: Government Printing O?ce, 1896), 63; United States, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1975), Series K-550563, Hay, Cotton, Cottonseed, Shorn Wool, and Tobacco  Acreage, Production, and Price: 1790 to 1970, 518; Hall, Spindle Whorls, 118; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 238; Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 14, 29.].

       ,          . ,    ,  ,    ,    . ,    -  ,      ,     , ,   300   ..           .           -,  ,       ,        ,     .             :                    ,     ,  .       .      ,     ,   ,    ,     ;    ,  [31 - Brown, Cotton, 14; Kate Peck Kent, Prehistoric Textiles of the Southwest (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1983), 9, 27, 28, 29; . : Ward Alan Minge, E?ectos del Pais: A History of Weaving Along the Rio Grande, in Nora Fisher, ed., Rio Grande Textiles (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1994), 6; Kate Peck Kent, Pueblo Indian Textiles: A Living Tradition (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1983), 26; Crawford, Heritage, 37; David Watts, The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change Since 1492 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 65, 89, 174; Mann, Cotton Trade, 4; Christopher Columbus, November 4, 1492, The Diario of Christopher Columbuss?rst voyage to America: 14921493, abstracted by Fray Bartolome de las Casas, transcribed and translated into English, with notes and a concordance of the Spanish, by Oliver Dunn and James E. Kelley Jr. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989), 13135; .:   16 , 3   5  1492., 8591, 131, 135.].

         . ,          .  ,   ,      5000   ..,     ,      ,         500   .. 300  ..        .          ,  ,           26002400   ..,         .             332   .. 395  ..  70  ..   ,     ,  ,  ,     .     ,           , ,    .    ,   ,          ,     酻  800             [32 - Pliny the Elder, The Natural History ofPliny, vol. 4, trans. John Bostock and H. T. Riley (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1856), 13435; Mann, Cotton Trade, 3. Christopher Ehret, The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2002), 6768; Ross, Wrapped in Pride, 75; Lars Sundstrom, The Trade of Guinea (Lund: Hakan Ohlssons Boktryckeri, 1965), 148; F. L. Grif?th and G. M. Crowfoot, On the Early Use of Cotton in the Nile Valley, Journal of Egyptian Archeology 20 (1934): 7; Amer and Momtaz, Historic Background, 212, 214, 215, 217.].

  ,     ,     .     ,    ,  ,                .     VIII     ,       ,   ,        ,       .           ,  X .        ,           XI          ,   .   XVI                 ,         [33 - M. Kouame Aka, Production et circulation des cotonnades en Afrique de lOuest du XIeme siecle a la ?n de la conquette coloniale (1921) (PhD dissertation, Universite de Cocody-Abidjan, 2013), 18, 41; Marion Johnson, Technology, Competition, and African Crafts, in Clive Dewey and A. G. Hopkins, eds., The Imperial Impact: Studies in the Economic History ofAfrica and India (London: Athlone Press, 1978), 176, 195, 201; Venice Lamb and Judy Holmes, Nigerian Weaving (Roxford: H. A. & V. M. Lamb, 1980), 15, 16; Marion Johnson, Cloth Strips and History, West African Journal of Archaeology 7 (1977): 169; Philip D. Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975), 48; Marion Johnson, Cloth as Money: The Cloth Strip Currencies of Africa, in Dale Idiens and K. G. Pointing, Textiles ofAfrica (Bath: Pasold Research Fund, 1980), 201.  -      . Patricia Davison and Patrick Harries, Cotton Weaving in South-east Africa: Its History and Technology, in Idiens and Pointing, Textiles ofAfrica, 177, 179, 180; Marie Philiponeau, Le coton et lIslam: Fil dune histoire africaine (Algiers: Casbah Editions, 2009), 15, 17; Ross, Wrapped in Pride, 75; Rita Bolland, Tellem Textiles: Archaeological Findsfrom Burial Caves in Malis Bandiagara Cli?(Leiden: Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, 1991); Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa and of the Notable Things Therein Contained, Done in the English in the Year 1600 by John Pory, vol. 3 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1896), 823, 824.].

,      ,   ,       [34 -         .: Meadow, Origins, 397.].    ,                  , ,      .       .         ,   ,      ,          XIX ,      XX .                 ,          ,   , ,   ,  ,   ,     ,           ,    .

          .                .     ,         ,   .   ,   1100   ..,     ( ),    VII   ..     .    ,     ,     .    ,      ,          ,          .   IXX        ,   .  XIII             ,           [35 - Brown, Cotton, 8; Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 11001600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 11, 15, 1718; Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials, 148; Hartmut Schmoekel, Ur, Assur und Babylon: Drei Jahrtausende im Zweistromland (Stuttgart: Gustav Klipper Verlag, 1958), 131; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 27; Richard W. Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels in Early Islamic Iran: A Moment in World History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 1, 8, 46; Marco Polo, Travels, 22, 26, 36, 54, 58, 59, 60, 174, 247, 253, 255.].

        ,                .                            ,      . ,  ,     ,       [36 - Chao Kuo-Chun, Agrarian Policy of the Chinese Communist Party, 19211959 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 5, 8?.].  200   ..     ,           -   ,    .

           (12711368).    ,  ,  ,            .  1433        ,          .   ,                  .






 :  500 



     (13681644)       .  ,          20   .    ,       -  ,    ,      ,   ,    , ,        .      ,         .  XVII     ,       . , ,    XVIII       400 ,           .  1750 ,            ,     1,5 ,      [37 - Craig Dietrich, Cotton Culture and Manufacture in Early Ching China, in W. E. Willmott, ed., Economic Organization in Chinese Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972), 111?.; Mi Chu Wiens, Cotton Textile Production and Rural Social Transformation in Early Modern China, Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 7 (December 1974): 516, 517?., 519; Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, eds., The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 7, The Ming Dynasty, 13681644, part 1 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 256, 507; Kenneth Pomeranz, Beyond the East-West Binary: Resituating Development Paths in the Eighteenth-Century World, Journal of Asian Studies 61 (May 2002): 569; United States, Historical Statistics, 518.].

       - .                 .         III  V   .  ,  1525  1550 ,   .  XVII      ,      ,     ,    [38 - Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 14501680, vol. 1, The Lands Below the Winds (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 90; Crawford, Heritage, 7; William B. Hauser, Economic Institutional Change in Tokugawa Japan: Osaka and the Kinai Cotton Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 11720; Mikio Sumiya and Koji Taira, eds., An Outline ofJapanese Economic History, 16031940: Major Works and Research Findings (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1979), 99100.].              .

  ,   , ,    ,          ,    .         ,          .  ,        ,    .   ,   ,    ,    ,            ,        ;     ,     .                    XX .

 ,            .       ,  ,   ,        ,         .  , ,         ,       ,   ,  ,     .        ,      .         ,      -     .    []    .             ,      ,      .       XIX ,     ,        [39 - Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 10, 29; Howard F. Cline, The Spirit of Enterprise in Yucatan, in Lewis Hanke, ed., History of Latin American Civilization, vol. 2 (London: Methuen, 1969), 137; Johnson, Technology, 259; Thomas J. Bassett, The Peasant Cotton Revolution in West Africa: Cote dIvoire, 18801995 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 33; James Forbes, Oriental Memoirs: A Narrative of Seventeen Years Residence in India, vol. 2 (London: Richard Bentley, 1834), 34; Moritz Schanz, Die Baumwolle in Russisch-Asien, Beihefte zum Tropenp?anzer 15 (1914): 2;  .: Tozaburo Tsukida, Kankoku ni okeru mensaku chosa (Tokyo: No-shomu sho noji shikenjyo, 1905), 13, 7683.].

   ,          ,   ,    XIX . ,            .             ,       .     , , - ,     .        ,        .              ,       ,               .    ,                 [40 - Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 201; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 241; Hall, Spindle Whorls, 120; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 147; Curtin, Economic Change, 50, 212; Brown, Cotton, 8; Reid, Southeast Asia, 93; Gilroy, History ofSilk, 339; Carla M. Sinopoli, The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c. 13501650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 185; A. Campbell, Notes on the State of the Arts of Cotton Spinning, Weaving, Printing and Dyeing in Nepal, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) 5 (January to December 1836): 222.].

        ,         .         ,   .  ,      -          .     ,     , ,       ,     ,  ,       .           ,       .  ,   ,        .            ,    - ,   ,     , ,  - , ,    .      ,     ,  ,      ,            .            ,           [41 - Hall, Spindle Whorls, 115, 116, 120, 122, 124; Davison and Harries, Cotton Weaving, 182; Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 209; Prescott, Conquest of Peru, 51; Gilroy, History of Silk, 339, 343; Curtin, Economic Change, 213; Kent, Prehistoric Textiles, 35; Kent, Pueblo Indian, 28; Reid, Southeast Asia, 93; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 14849; Lamb and Holmes, Nigerian Weaving, 1011; Johnson, Technology, 261.].

                  ,   . ,   XVIII    -     ,    ,   ,     [42 - Reid, Southeast Asia, 94.].    ,    ,    ,        ,      ,   ,          .  ,     ,     ,    , ,  ,      .

            .     -    .           .    -      , ,   .       ,     .     , ,    ,    ,         .                     .

  ,   XIX  -            ,   [43 - Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 242, 259; Mote and Twitchett, Ming Dynasty, 507, 690?.; K. N. Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, in Tirthankar Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce: Textiles in Colonial India (Waltnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1996), 71; Wiens, Cotton Textile, 520; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 177.].

         ,     , ,  ,       .           XIX     ,     1780-    .  ,      ,       ,        .          ,    ,         .  , ,      .     XV         .         .  ,       ,      ,    ,  -   .      , ,    -,      ,      .             : ,  ,  [44 - Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 242; Bray, Textile Production, 119; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 162; Curtin, Economic Change, 212; Davison and Harries, Cotton Weaving, 187; Johnson, Cloth as Money, 193202; Reid, Southeast Asia, 90; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 164; Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 9.].

       ,    ,       ,       . ,    ,    ,   ,      ,  ,   ,       ,       .   IXX       ,  -    ,   ,      ,     ,  ,    .   -   ,      .       IV   ..          ,      ,        ,     .     ,       ,             ,    [45 - Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 356; Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels, 46, 59; Philiponeau, Coton et lIslam, 25; Pedro Machado, Awash in a Sea of Cloth: Gujarat, Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Trade, 13001800, in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 12001850 (New York: Oxford University Press 2009), 16179;     ,    ,   Gil J. Stein, Rethinking World-Systems: Diasporas, Colonies, and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), 173.].

        ,      , ,   (     )  .  -          .          ,    .   XIII                  ,  ,   .       ,   , ,       ,    .          ,   ,         XIII [46 - .: Hall, Spindle Whorls, 115; Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 9; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 247?., 258; Kent, Prehistoric Textiles, 28; Volney H.Jones, A Summary of Data on Aboriginal Cotton of the Southwest, University of New Mexico Bulletin, Symposium on Prehistoric Agriculture, vol. 296 (October 15, 1936), 60; Reid, Southeast Asia, 91; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 147; Bassett, Peasant Cotton, 34; Curtin, Economic Change, 21213; Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman State: Economy and Society, 13001600, in Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 13001914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 296; Hauser, Economic Institutional Change, 59.].

,          ,    , - , ,  ,    .               .      ,         ,               ,   .   VI   ..     :          .            .           ,        .         .             XIX ,          .

   1647     ,      ,      [47 - Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 156, 157; Ramaswamy, Textiles, 25, 7072; Chaudhuri, Organisation, 55; Inalcik, Ottoman State, 352; Mann, Cotton Trade, 23, 23; Smith and Cothren, Cotton, 6869; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 24, 76; Wescher, Die Baumwolle, 1639; Gilroy, History ofSilk, 321; John Peter Wild and Felicity Wild, Rome and India: Early Indian Cotton Textiles from Berenike, Red Sea Coast of Egypt, in Ruth Barnes, ed., Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies (New York: Routledge, 2005), 1116; Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study in the Impact of European Expansion on Precapitalist Economy (New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 1975), 3; . : Inalcik, Ottoman State, 355, . : 350, 354, 355; .: Eliyahu Ashtor, The Venetian Cotton Trade in Syria in the Later Middle Ages, Studi Medievali, ser. 3, vol. 17 (1976): 690; Suraiya Faroqhi, Crisis and Change, 15901699, in Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 13001914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 524; Eugen Wirt, Aleppo im 19. Jahrhundert, in Hans Geord Majer, ed., Osmanische Studien zur Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986), 186205; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 179.].

     ,    .        .        - ,   :   , ,      XVI ,    ,    ,   .         ,    1503           :     , , , ,      , , ,          .  ,    (karpasi)   , , , , , , , ,    .            (. chintz)   (. jackonet), ,       ,              .  XVII       ,         [48 - Crawford, Heritage, 6, 69; Reid, Southeast Asia, 90, 95; quoted in Sinnappah Arasa-ratnam and Aniruddha Ray, Masulipatnam and Cambay: A History of Two Port-Towns, 15001800 (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1994), 121;        ,         .: Gopal, Commerce and Crafts, 16, 80, 160; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 911; Beverly Lemire, Revising the Historical Narrative: India, Europe, and the Cotton Trade, c. 13001800, in Riello and Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World, 226.].

         .            ,   .     ;      ,            ,    .       ,      ,     ,           . ,  ,      ,             XV .     , ,    ,  :     ,      ,   ,     .           ,                 ,        .          :  XIV    , ,       ,        .           .  ,   ,          ,   ,    ,    뻠   .  ,   ,    ,   ,   ,    ,    .     1590-      ,      .        ;         XVIII    -  [49 - B. C. Allen, Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: Dacca (Allahabad: Pioneer Press, 1912), 106; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 186; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 75; Ramaswamy, Textiles, 44, 53, 55; Wiens, Cotton Textile, 522, 528; Yueksel Duman, Notables, Textiles and Copper in Ottoman Tokat, 17501840 (PhD dissertation, Binghamton University, 1998); Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 22; Max Freiherrn von Oppenheim, Der Tell Halaf: Eine neue Kultur im altesten Mesopotamien (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1931), 70; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 147; Lamb and Holmes, Nigerian Weaving, 10; Curtin, Economic Change, 48; Aka, Production, 69; Youssoupha Mbargane Guisse, Ecrire lhistoire economique des artisans et createurs de lAfrique de lOuest (presentation, Universite de Dakar, Senegal, December 2011); Hauser, Economic Institutional Change, 2030.].

     ,         :  ,  , ,       .              ,    ,    ,    .           ,          :   ,   .    ,       XIX ,           ,          .   -    .   , ,             ,       ,         ,           .          .   , ,      ,     ,          .            .        .   -,          ,           ,        . ,  ,    ,          XIX [50 - Chaudhuri, Organisation, 49, 51, 53; Hameeda Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers: Impact of the Con?ict Between the Revenue and Commercial Interests of the East India Company, 17501800, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 117. Suraiya Faroqhi, Notes on the Production of Cotton and Cotton Cloth in Sixteenthand Seventeenth-Century Anatolia, in Huri Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 267, 268; Inalcik, Ottoman State,; Huri Islamoglu-Inan, State and Peasant in the Ottoman Empire: Agrarian Power Relations and Regional Economic Development in Ottoman Anatolia During the Sixteenth Century (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994), 223, 235; Socrates D. Petmezas, Patterns of Protoindustrialization in the Ottoman Empire: The Case of Eastern Thessaly, ca. 17501860, Journal of European Economic History (1991): 589; Prasannan Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, in Burton Stein and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds., Institutions and Economic Change in South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 96, 98; S. Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company: The Handloom Industry in Southeastern India, 175090, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 87; Bray, Textile Production, 127.].

        .           ,          ,        XVIII   XIX ,      .  , ,         .  1200          ,     ,  ,  ,       .   , ,  :   (  ),  (     ),      ,      ,   .  ,   XI ,    ,        .            .      ,       500  750 ,    (      )   [51 - Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 349; Angela Lakwete, Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2005), 1112; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 7482, 89; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 35455; John H. A. Munro, Textiles, Towns and Trade: Essays in the Economic History of Late-Medieval England and the Low Countries (Brook?eld, VT: Variorum, 1994), 8, 15; Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Cotton Industry of Northern Italy in the Late Middle Ages, 11501450, Journal of Economic History 32 (1972): 274.].

           ,  ,     XIX ,          .                    .   , , -      ,                  .            ,    ,       (       staple),        .  ,            .                ,   ,       ,     .  , ,       IX      . ,      XVIII  XIX ,             .                 ,      ,    [52 - Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, Creating Abundance: Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 1089; John Hebron Moore, Cotton Breeding in the Old South, Agricultural History 30, no. 3 (July 1956): 95104; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Ante-Bellum Mississippi (New York: Bookman Associates, 1958), 1336, 97; Lewis Cecil Gray, History ofAgriculture in the Southern United States to 1860, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933), 689 90; James Lawrence Watkins, King Cotton: A Historical and Statistical Review, 1790 to 1908 (New York: J. L. Watkins, 1908), 13; Bassett, Peasant Cotton, 33; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 2021; Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels, 40; Chaudhuri, Organisation, 75.].

   ,         ,   ,  ,       .    , ,      ,      .           .      ,     : -,   ,   , ,      1780 ,  ,  -,      -      .      ,     .

        ,          .     ,  ,    .   ,               ,  -         .  ,      ,      .      ,     ,      ,   [53 - Mahatma Gandhi, The Indian Cotton Textile Industry: Its Past, Present and Future (Calcutta: G. N. Mitra, 1930), 6.].






-:    



      .      ,   ,   ,          -.        ,       ,   ;     ,     [54 - . : Henry Lee, The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary: A Curious Fable of the Cotton Plant (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1887), 5.].

      ,     ,    .  950       , ,   ,    .         .  XII       -    ,       [55 - Mann, Cotton Trade, 5; Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 39; .:   Museu Textil i dIndumentaria, Barcelona, Spain.].      ,            qutun.  coton,  cotton,  algodn,  algod?o,  katoen   cotone        . ( Baumwolle   bavlna        ,   .)                  ,                      .

 XII                ,     .          ,       ,       [56 - ,            ,  Baumwolle,    Lexikon des Mittelalters, vol. 1 (Munich: Artemis Verlag, 1980), 1670.].      ,     ,         .

          ,     , , ,   .   XII             .  , ,  1450           ,     ,     [57 - Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 16001780 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931), 15; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 263; Ashtor, Venetian Cotton, 677.].                 [58 -          ,   , , ,  ,   . .: Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 268; Wescher, Die Baumwolle, 1643, 1644; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 114.].

         . -,          ,      ,       .      ,     .   -      .      ,   ,      .         ,               ,  , , ,   [59 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 64, 66, 69; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 271, 273, 276; Wescher, Die Baumwolle, 1643.].

-,      -. ,         ,     ,       .   XI        ,    ,     .      -        1125 [60 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 7, 29, 63; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 265.].

         ,      ,  XII .       ,     ,       .       ,     .      ,     ,    ,   ,     :      ,         .   ,   ,                .  ,      ,            [61 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 53; Ashtor, Venetian Cotton, 675, 697; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 35; Ashtor, Venetian Cotton, 676.].

           -,     .                    .  XII               .         XIII  ,    ,     .    :     120    .      ,       .        ,    .  ,            ,           .   ,   ,          .       ,             ,    ,   ,      ,       .             [62 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 6566, 7482; Angela Lakwete, Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2005), 1112; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 7482, 89; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 274, 275; Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben, 6566, 37, 63, 67, 114, 115; .: Karl-Heinz Ludwig, Spinnen im Mittelalter unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der Arbeiten cum rota, Technikgeschichte 57 (1990): 78; Eric Broudy, The Book ofLooms: A History of the Handloomfrom Ancient Times to the Present (Hanover, NH: Brown University Press, 1979), 102; Munro, Textiles, 8, 15.].






   , ,  XIV 



            -     .           ;             .           ,           [63 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, xi, 29.].

              :        ,    .     ,       .    ,        ,  ,       ,          ,      .   XV            ,      ,       , , ,   ,        [64 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 139, 144, 150, 152; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 282, 284; Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 8486; Eugen Nubling, Ulms Baumwollweberei im Mittelalter (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1890), 146.].

           1367 .           ,      -.       ,               .                          [65 - Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 32; Goetz Freiherr von Poelnitz, Die Fugger (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1981); Richard Ehrenberg, Capital and Finance in the Age of the Renaissance: A Study of the Fuggers and Their Connections, trans. H. M. Lucas (New York: Harcourt, 1928).].

               .  1363  1383           .       ,       ,        .   ,       ,   ,            .           ,        ,    .    ,  , ,   ,     .             ,  [66 - Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 1, 2, 8, 21, 128, 139, 148; Nubling, Ulms Baumwollwebe-rei, 141; Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben, 152.].

       .  , ,     ,     2      ,     18      .      ,    ,        ,            ,  ,       .       ,   ,      ,    -         [67 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 141; Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 88.].

                    .              .          ,    .    -        .  ,   XVI         ,        ,        .  XVI       ,     ,         -.   ,     1560-      ,       ,   .   ,  ,       ,          .    ,    -  ,   XVI          ,  .  1589        [68 - Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 55, 54, 154; Wadsworth and Mann, Cotton Trade, 23; Inalcik, Ottoman State, 365; Daniel Go?man, Izmir: From Village to Colonial Port City, in Edhem Eldem, Daniel Go?man, and Bruce Masters, eds., The Ottoman City Between East and West: Aleppo, Izmir, and Istanbul (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 79134.].

    ,         ,       ,    , - ,      ,    .     .   XVI ,      ,      ,    ,     ,             [69 - Nubling, Ulms Baumwollweberei, 166.].




 2

  





    :   -   ,  , 1795.



     XII        XV       ,     .       .     ,         ,   ,    .  ,   ,     ,          .          :      -   . ,           ,                        .              ,          ,     ,        .  ,       ,     -    ,       .   1600          .

        .   ,   ,       ,     .        :            ,      ,    .            , , ,    :             .    ,  ,         ,         , ,     ,     ,   [70 -          ,         ,            .        Gil J. Stein, Rethinking World-Systems: Diasporas, Colonies, and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), 171.].           .             ,          .               ,              .

        .                .  -         .                  .          .               .          .            .                              ,        ,       .        .          .

      1492          .          ,         1518         ,    ,    .   XVI        ,    .      1605    ,       ,        ,     ,   1664  -     .        ,        1607 ,             .   ,           ,   ,      .

         ,  1497 ,          ,           .                     ,         ,    ,        .         ,             1498 .   XVI          ,        .   XVI           ,          .   -           ,         .

                .          ,      ,       .                            (  ),     XVI     .      : 1600    British East India Company ( - ),  1602   Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie ( - ),   1616   Dansk Ostindiske Kompagni ( - ).   XVII            ,                  - ,          ,     [71 - Om Prakash, The New Cambridge History ofIndia vol. 2, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 23; Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study in the Impact ofEuropean Expansion on Precapitalist Economy (New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 1975), 1011, 18, 26, 28, 58.].            .  1664     Compagnie des Indes Fran?aise      ,    indiennes     .         , ,    ,      ,     [72 - Celine Cousquer, Nantes: Une capitalefran?aise des Indiennes au XVIIIe si?cle (Nantes: Coi?ard Editions, 2002), 17.].

        ,             - ,    ,     ,                    ,      .         .           .         , ,    ,    ,           .

        .    XVII              ,            .  -      1621    50   .       .         - : 1766      75%    .  ,      ,     ,     ,    , , , , , ,          [73 - Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company: The Handloom Industry in Southeastern India, 175090, in Tirthankar Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce: Textiles in Colonial India (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1996), 90; James Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (London: Simpkin, Marshall & C?, 1860), 2; Walter R. Cassels, Cotton: An Account of Its Culture in the Bombay Presidency (Bombay: Bombay Education Societys Press, 1862), 77; Beverly Lemire, Fashions Favourite: The Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 16601800 (Oxford: Pasold Research Fund, 1991), 15; Hameeda Hossain, The Company Weavers of Bengal: The East India Company and the Organization of Textile Production in Bengal, 17501813 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988), 65; Proceeding, Bombay Castle, November 10, 1776, in Bombay Commercial Proceedings, P/414, 47, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 16001850, CEPR Discussion Paper No. 5183, London, Centre for Economic Policy Research, August 2005, Table 3, p. 32; Daniel Defoe and John McVeagh, A Review of the State of the British Nation, vol. 4, 170708 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2006), 606.].

          .        .          ,    -  .        ,      , banias,             ,  ,      .   ,   ,  , , ,   ,   ,   ,        banias      .      ,     ,     [74 - ., : Factory Records, Dacca, 1779, Record Group G 15, col. 21 (1779), in Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; John Irwin and P. R. Schwartz, Studies in Indo-European Textile History (Ahmedabad, 1966).].

 1676    -        ,       .        banias         ,   , ,    .             . Banias     ,      ,        [75 - K. N. Chaudhuri, European Trade with India, in The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 1, c. 1200c. 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 4056; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 92, 94; ., : Copy of the Petition of Dadabo Monackjee, Contractor for the Investment anno 1779, in Factory Records, G 36 (Surat), 58, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Cousquer, Nantes, 31.].               ,       .

           ,   ,      ,      ,    .      , ,        ,     .        ,              .   - ,          ,    banias    ,            [76 - Hameeda Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers: Impact of the Con?ict Between the Revenue and Commercial Interests of the East India Company, 17501800, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 119, 117; Atul Chandra Pradhan, British Trade in Cotton Goods and the Decline of the Cotton Industry in Orissa, in Nihar Ranjan Patnaik, ed., Economic History of Orissa (New Delhi: Indus Publishing Co., 1997), 244; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 90; Shantha Hariharan, Cotton Textiles and Corporate Buyers in Cottonopolis: A Study of Purchases and Prices in Gujarat, 16001800 (Delhi: Manak Publications, 2002), 49.].

      ,    .  ,     -     ,     ,      ,     ,   - ,   ,      banias[77 - Memorandum of the Method of Providing Cloth at Dacca, 1676, in in Factory Records, Miscellaneous, vol. 26, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.].

                  .    1800   -           ,    ,      ,   bania               . , , ,      -       ,              .     1700-          .               ,     [78 - Minutes of the Commercial Proceedings at Bombay Castle, April 15, 1800, in Minutes of Commercial Proceedings at Bombay Castle from April 15, 1800 to 31st December 1800, in Bombay Commercial Proceedings, P/414, Box 66, India O?ce Library, British Library, London; Copy of the Petition of Dadabo Monackjee, 1779, Factory Records Surat, 1780, Box 58, record G 36 (Surat), Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Report of John Taylor on the Cotton Textiles of Dacca, Home Miscellaneous Series, 456, p. 91, India O?ce Library, British Library, London; Lakshmi Subramanian, Indigenous Capital and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Surat and the West Coast (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 15.].

                 ,              .  1670     - ,          ,    .    ,          ,    ,   -           ,       .  ,    ,        .            ,       .          .         XVIII             [79 - John Styles, What Were Cottons for in the Early Industrial Revolution? in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 12001850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 30726. Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman State: Economy and Society, 13001600, in Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 13001914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 354; Pedro Machado, Awash in a Sea of Cloth: Gujarat, Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Trade, 13001800, in Riello and Parthasarasi, The Spinning World, 169; Subramanian, Indigenous Capital, 4.].

                   .           ,      .         ,           ,   .        XVIII ,                      [80 - Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 11001600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 157.].

 ,       .  , , ,        ,         . ,             .

              ,       : ,       ,   ,   ,   .       , ,   ,    ,       .          :    ,    ,    .               .    ,      , , ,          1500    8        .    XVIII     5 ,       ,  ,  ,  [81 - Assessing the Slave Trade, The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database,  5  2013., http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces.].       ,      .

        ,               .   ,             ,            .        1308     2218     1772  1780  ,         .       XVIII   XIX     :    60% [82 - David Richardson, West African Consumption Patterns and Their In?uence on the Eighteenth-Century English Slave Trade, in Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn, eds. The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Academic Press, 1979), 304; Joseph C. Miller, Imports at Luanda, Angola 17851823, in G. Liesegang, H. Pasch, and A.Jones, eds. Figuring African Trade: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Quanti?cation and Structure of the Import and Export and Long- Distance Trade in Africa 18001913 (Berlin, 1986), 164, 192; George Metcalf, A Microcosm of Why Africans Sold Slaves: Akan Consumption Patterns in the 1770s, Journal ofAfrican History 28, no. 3 (January 1, 1987): 37880.].

     -      ,     .    ,         ,           .           1731 ,              .                   ,         ,    ,   . ()           ,          1779 ,   ,      ,      [83 - Harry Hamilton Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition: A Record of Scienti?c Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886), 45; . : Jeremy Prestholdt, On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism, American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (June 1, 2004): 761, 765; Robert Harms, The Diligent: A Voyage Through the Worlds of the Slave Trade (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 81; Miles to Shoolbred, 25 July 1779, T70/1483, Public Records O?ce, London, . : Metcalf, A Microcosm of Why Africans Sold Slaves, 388.].      ,        .             ,   .           ,       ,       .    ,           .         ,   ,    ,  ,         :       .

     ,            ,               .               -.              ,       .    ,    ,   ,         .    ,       .    ,      .       ,        .

       :       ,             .    ,        (, ,  - )            .   -       ,      , -,            ,  ,  .        .    ,       ,     ,             .          ,      ,       .

     .                      .            .           ,   ,       .             ,           ,      XIX ,        .

              .      ,    ,      . ,      ,   ,   ,   ,                  .

        .     ,   ,          . ,    ,        ,     ,     tabula rasa, , ,             [84 - . : Carl Wennerlind, Casualties of Credit: The English Financial Revolution, 16201720 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011); Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations, bk. IV, ch. VII, pt. II, vol. II, Edwin Cannan, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 75.].

     .      ,    ,     ,         :       . ,     ,          ,       .     ,               ,    .

         ,   .  ,   ,   ,     ,       ,    .     ,       ,             .    XVI                         -     .          -,         ,    ,   (  1513 )   (  1574 ),      .       XVI           [85 - Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry, 162; Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 16001780 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931), 116; Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 5; Wolfgang von Stromer, Die Grundung der Baumwollindustrie in Mitteleuropa (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1978), 28; H. Wescher, Die Baumwolle im Altertum, in Ciba-Rundschau 45 (June 1940): 164445.].

                 .  1600           .       1601 ,    ,    ,      .  1610       .  ,   1620          , ,   .         ,     ,    ,    ,     ,         [86 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 11, 15, 19, 21, 72.].

              .    ,      . ,       ,   - , ,       ,     ,        .       ,              ,                   .   ,    ,    .       ,           ,              .      ,                 .      ,             [87 - 18.Ibid., 4, 5, 27, 29, 42, 55, 73.           . .: Herman van der Wee, The Western European Woolen Industries, 15001750, in David Jenkins, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 399.].

      ,               .         ,       ,    [88 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 36.].    -   ,   banias.          ,          ,                       ,                      .

   ,       .   XVII  XVIII        .  ,     ,     .   1697    . ,         -  3,67     .        .  ,  1858          .      ,           [89 - Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 6; Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (London: Fisher, Fisher and Jackson, 1835), 109; Bernard Lepetit, Frankreich, 17501850, in Wolfram Fischer et al., eds, Handbuch der Europaeischen Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte, vol. 4 (Stuttgart: Klett-Verling fur Wissen und Bildung, 1993), 487.].

       ,          .    -     XVII  XVIII    ,    ,   1780      ,          ,           .  1753            ,            [90 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 187.].    ,  ,    ,        .

         ,     .   XVII          ,         ,      .   XVIII     -  ,         : 1700  1745               [91 -    .: Elena Frangakis-Syrett, Trade Between the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe: The Case of Izmir in the Eighteenth Century, New Perspectives on Turkey 2 (1988): 118; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 304; Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 23.   ,                  ,    ; .: Thomas Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain: Including a History of the Liverpool Cotton Market (London and Liverpool: E?ngham Wilson, 1886), 81.   .: Nicolas Svoronos, Le commerce de Salonique au XVIIIe siecle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1956); Manchester Cotton Supply Association, Cotton Culture in New or Partially Developed Sources of Supply: Report ofProceedings (Manchester: Cotton Supply Association, 1862), 30, . : Oran Kurmus, The Cotton Famine and Its E?ects on the Ottoman Empire, in Huri Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 161; Resat Kasaba, The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), 21.     . : Bruce McGowan, Economic Life in Ottoman Europe: Taxation, Trade and the Strugglefor Land, 16001800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).].

  -     , ,    ,   -       1690- .     1720-            --    ,  12-   1723         .                .             ,   [92 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 183; Treasury Department, T 70/1515, Allotment of goods to be sold by the Royal African Company of England, National Archives of the UK, Kew.].

        -.         ,   ,     ,   ,   .   petits blancs,      ,  1780    .      -          .    ,     ,   ,    [93 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 186; Lowell Joseph Ragatz, Statistics for the Study of British Caribbean Economic History, 17631833 (London: Bryan Edwards Press, 1927), 22; Lowell Joseph Ragatz, The Fall of the Planter Class in the British Caribbean (New York: Century Co., 1928), 39.].






    (17021780- .),   ,   ,    



 ,  1770               .   -        ,        ,         ,        .     ,         ,         ,    .          -     ,            ,      [94 -           Elena Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century (17001820) (Athens: Centre for Asia Minor Studies, 1992), 14; Svoronos, Le commerce de Salonique au XVIIIe siecle, 246.].

      -       ,        ,       ,          .        .   , , ,    ,     ,            .   1614     12 500   ,   1699  1701      877 789   .      70       [95 - Joseph E. Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 42931.].

           ,   -          .       -    ,          ,   banias,          ,     ,     .       ,            .            [96 - Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 100; K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 16601760 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 259; Debendra Bijoy Mitra, The Cotton Weavers of Bengal, 17571833 (Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Limited, 1978), 5; Prasannan Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, in Burton Stein and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds., Institutions and Economic Change in South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 89.].

               ,              .      ,     . ,  1730-             .      1765   -        ,             .          XVIII     -    ,              - .               .          [97 - Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 85; Diary, Consultation, 18 January 1796, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai;        Mitra, The Cotton Weavers ofBengal, 4; B. C. Allen, Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: Dacca (Allahabad: Pioneer Press, 1912), 3839; Subramanian, Indigenous Capital, 2023, 332.].

                  ,     [98 - K. N. Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, in Roy, Cloth and Commerce, 59.].   XVII       ,           ,    ,       .  , ,   ,      1765 ,   -  1795   



      ,          ,         ,         ,       ,  ,          ,  ,              [99 - Commercial Board Minute laid before the Board, Surat, 12 September 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai.].


                .    -      banias,        ,     ,      .         -,       ,                  ,      .                             .       ,           ,         ,       .    XVIII             , ,              .  1790-  -                    ,        [100 -   Gamut Farmer, President, Surat, to Mr. John Gri?th, Esq., Governor in Council Bombay, 12 December 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 86; Board of Trade, Report of Commercial Occurrences, 12 September 1787, in Reports to the Governor General from the Board of Trade, RG 172, Box 393, Home Miscellaneous, India O?ce Records, British Library, London; Letter from John Gri?th, Bombay Castle to William [illegible], Esq., Chief President, 27 October 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive; Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers, 121, 125; Mitra, The Cotton Weavers of Bengal, 9; Dispatch, London, 29 May 1799, in Bombay Dispatches, E/4, 1014, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.].

     ,           .     ,          ;          ;          ,   .          .  ,      ,         ,           [101 - Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, 99100; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 107, 109; Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, 5859; Chaudhuri, The Trading World ofAsia and the English East India Company, 261.].

   ,          .             ,     .        ,        .        ,  ,       .      ,    [102 - Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 102, 107; Mitra, The Cotton Weavers of Bengal, 48; Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers, 12425.].

      ,   .    ,       , [sic]        ,   ,      ,            [   ], :  ,      ,     쓻.     :    .   XVII        .     ,   XVIII      6%.     ,          ,        .  1795        [103 - Bowanny Sankar Mukherjee . : Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers, 129;    .: Om Prakah, Textile Manufacturing and Trade Without and with Coercion: The Indian Experience in the Eighteenth Century (unpublished paper, Global Economic History Network Conference Osaka, December 2004), 26, http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Rese-arch/GEHN/GEHNPDF/PrakashGEHN5.pdf; Hossain, The Company Weavers of Bengal, 52; Vijaya Ramaswamy, Textiles and Weavers in South India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), xiii, 170; Copy of Letter from Board of Directors, London, 20 April, 1795, to our President in Council at Bombay, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, in Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai.].

,          .       ,  .      ,         .       -     ,     [104 -     Mitra, The Cotton Weavers ofBengal, 7;    Chaudhuri, The Trading World ofAsia and the English East India Company, 252; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 103; .: Details Regarding Weaving in Bengal, Home Miscellaneous Series, 795, pp. 1822, India O?ce Library, British Library, London.].

      . ,       , -  ,      ,   ,                .         ,          ,        [105 - Commercial Board Minute laid before the Board, Surat, 12 September 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai; Homes Miscellaneous Series, 795, pp. 1822, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London. . : Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, 94.].

   ,            .       1727  ,  , 30    1790    80   .    ,            ,   : 1776          ,   1795 ,   - ,        .    .  1765     -       ,       ,         [106 - Amalendu Guha, The Decline of Indias Cotton Handicrafts, 18001905: A Quantitative Macro-study, Calcutta Historical Journal 17 (1989): 4142; Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, 60;     178687         16 403 . Homes Miscellaneous Series, 795, pp. 1822, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Diary, Consultation, 18 January 1796, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai.].



        ,            ;             ,          -, , ,    ,                   ,      (.. ),    ,          [107 - Dispatch from East India Company, London to Bombay, 22 March 1765, in Dispatches to Bombay, E/4, 997, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London, p. 611.].


    ,   ,               .               . ,     -    1793 ,          [108 - Report of the Select Committee of the Court of Directors of the East India Company, Upon the Subject of the Cotton Manufacture of this Country, 1793, Home Miscellaneous Series, 401, p. 1, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.].



  ,                ,     .     , ,       ,    ,  ? , ,     ,     . ,          ,               .  ,            .   , ,            ;  ,        ,    ,  ,    .

      ,        .   XVII      ,                ,               .       :              [109 - Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 430; Inalcik, The Ottoman State, 355.].

  1621 ,          - ,         .   ,  1623 , ,     ,     .           XVII  XVIII .  1678       ,        ,        .  1708   Defoes Review    ,                 - .   ,   []    ,  -      .          ,         : 1779   , ,  -    ,   ,        - ,     -,         [110 - M. D. C. Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton: The Fibre of Two Worlds and Many Ages (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1924), xvii;   . : Cassels, Cotton, 1;    Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 75; Defoe and McVeagh, A Review of the State of the British Nation, vol. 4, 6056; Copy of Memorial of the Callicoe Printers to the Lords of the Treasury, Received, May 4, 1779, Treasury Department, T 1, 552, National Archives of the UK, Kew. .:     The Memorial of the Several Persons whose Names are herunto subscribed on behalf of themselves and other Callico Printers of Great Britain, received July 1, 1780, at the Lords Commissioners of His Majestys Treasury, Treasury Department, T1, 563/7278, National Archives of the UK, Kew.].

     .  1685      10%           ,    .  1690     .  1701      ,                  .  1721    ,      ,       ,        .           : 1772         . ,       ,    .    .  1774   ,             ,     .  -   ,      .         ,     ,   .              ,     [111 - . : S. V. Puntambekar and N. S. Varadachari, Hand-Spinning and Hand-Weaving: An Essay (Ahmedabad: All India Spinners Association, 1926), 49, 51?., 58; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 43132; Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton, xvii; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 79; Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 132; Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton, xvii; Lemire, Fashions Favourite, 42; Petition to the Treasury by Robert Gardiner, in Treasury Department, T1, 517/ 100101, Public Records O?ce, London; Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 128; Letter of Vincent Mathias to the Treasury, 24 July 1767, Treasury Department, T 1, 457, National Archives of the UK, London.].

,   ,       .  1686        ,      ,    ,    .

                  .      ,    ,   1726     .  1755             ,   1785          .       ,    50 000   .          ,    ,      .   ,           [112 - Cousquer, Nantes, 12, 23, 43; Arret du conseil detat du roi, 10 Juillet 1785 (Paris: LIm-primerie Royale, 1785), Andre Zysberg, Les Galeriens: Vies et destiny de 60,000 porcats sur les galeres de France, 16801748 (Paris: Sevid, 1987); Marc Vigie, Les Galeriens du Roi, 16611715 (Paris: Fayard, 1985).].

     :        1700 ,    .    1721    -            .        1717 .    XVIII   - I        [113 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 11819; Examen des e?ets que doivent produire dans le commerce de France, lusage et lafabrication des toiles peintes (Paris: Chez la Veuve Delaguette, 1759); Friedrich Wilhelm, King of Prussia, Edict dass von Dato an zu rechnen nach Ablaufacht Monathen in der Chur-Marck Magdeburgischen, Halberstadtschem und Pommern niemand einigen gedruckten oder gemahlten Zitz oder Cattun weiter tragen soll (Berlin: G. Schlechtiger, 1721); Yuksel Duman, Notables, Textiles and Copper in Ottoman Tokat, 17501840 (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton, 1998), 14445.].

,         ,   ,         . ,            ,    -     1807 ,   ,         ,  ,      . ,         .             ,           ,           .         ,   ,     .  ,        ,          ,    ,          ,        ,               [114 - Legoux de Flaix, Essai historique, geographique et politique sur lIndoustan, avec le tableau de son commerce, vol. 2 (Paris: Pougin, 1807), 326; Lemire, Fashions Favourite, 342.].

 ,                   .             ,       ,      .             ,             .

   ,           ,       .        ,                . ,          ,    .  1678   ,     - ,          ,    .        ,   1731       -       ,  ,     .        1743         ,    .        ,    XVIII       .     1807        (    ,      )                 :           ,   ,     .          [115 - . : George Bryan Souza, Convergence Before Divergence: Global Maritime Economic History and Material Culture, International Journal of Maritime History 17, 1 (2005): 1727; Georges Roques, La maniere de negocier dans les Indes Orientales, Bibliotheque National, Paris, Fonds Francais 14 614; Paul R. Schwartz, Limpression sur coton a Ahmedabad (Inde) en 1678, Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, no. 1 (1967): 925; Cousquer, Nantes, 1820; Jean Ryhiner, Traite sur lafabrication et le commerce des toiles peintes, commences en 1766, Archive du Musee de lImpression sur Eto?es, Mulhouse, France. . : 1758 Re?exions sur les avantages de la librefabrication et de lusage des toiles peintes en France (Geneva: n. p., 1758), Archive du Musee de lImpression sur Eto?es, Mulhouse, France; M. Delormois, Lart defaire lindienne a linstar dAngleterre, et de composer toutes les couleurs, bon teint, propres a lindienne (Paris: Charles-Antoine Jambert, 1770); Legoux de Flaix, Essai historique, vol. 2, 165, 331, . : Florence dSouza, Legoux de Flaixs Observations on Indian Technologies Unknown in Europe, in K. S. Mathew, ed., French in India and Indian Nationalism, vol. 1 (Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation, 1999), 32324.].

     .   XVIII      ,        .    XVII  XVIII           ,    .  ,    ,   ,   ,                     ,   , ,              .               ,   XVI  XVIII             .           ,       [116 - Dorte Raaschou, Un document Danois sur la fabrication des toiles Peintes a Tranquebar, aux Indes, a la ?n du XVIII siecle, in Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, no. 4 (1967): 921; Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 119; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 432; . : Philosophical Magazine 30 (1808): 259; . : Philosophical Magazine 1 (1798): 4. . : S. D. Chapman, The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1972), 12; Philosophical Magazine 1 (1798): 126.].

             .      1780       ,         ,     ,    ,      ,             ,    (     ),    ,     ,      [117 - Cotton Goods Manufacturers, Petition to the Lords Commissioner of His Majestys Treasury, Treasury Department, T 1, 676/30, Public Record O?ce, London; Dispatch, November 21, 1787, Bombay Dispatches, E/4, 1004, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.].  ,    ,   ,     .  1770   ,              ,  , ,    ,       ,         ,  .           ,       [118 - Chapman, The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution, 16.].

              ,          .       ,        ,              ,      .        ,         ,       .        XVIII ,    ( -)                 ,    ,         [119 - Marion Johnson, Technology, Competition, and African Crafts, in Clive Dewey and A. G. Hopkins, eds., The Imperial Impact: Studies in the Economic History of Africa and India (London: Athlone Press, 1978), 262; Irwin and Schwartz, Studies in Indo-European Textile History, 12.  ,    XVIII        ,   80  90%   . J. S. Hogendorn and H. A. Gemery, The Hidden Half  of the Anglo-African Trade in the Eighteenth Century: The Signi?cance of Marion Johnsons Statistical Research, in David Henige and T. C. McCaskie, eds., West African Economic and Social History: Studies in Memory of Marion Johnson (Madison: African Studies Program, University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 90; Extract Letter, East India Company, Commercial Department, London, to Bombay, May 4, 1791, in Home Miss. 374, India O?ce, Oriental and India O?ce Records, British Library, London; Cousquer, Nantes, 32; de Flain is quoted in Richard Roberts, West Africa and the Pondicherry Textile Industry, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 142.].

               .          1750 .     . ,  1760          .   XVIII   ,   ,    .       .      94%    .     ,  ,      ,   .     ,   1776     ,         ,          ,            -  ,       [120 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 116, 127, 147; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 43435; 448; Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations, bk. IV, ch. I, vol. I, 470.].

            ,         .          ,       ,       .  1730  -  ,          ,  ,          ,      ,   .           ,        .  ,       :         ,     .   1791    -              [121 - Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 131;   , 122, 151, 154; Extract Letter to Bombay, Commercial Department, May 4th, 1791, in Home Miscellaneous 374, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.].

 , ,                     .    ,        .       .   ,  ,         ,        ,           ,     .     ,     ,    ,    .          ,        ,     .  ,          ,       ,     ,    [122 - Maurice Dobb, Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International Publishers, 1947), 277; George Unwin,    George W. Daniels, The Early English Cotton Industry (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1920), xxx.     Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson, The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional Change and Economic Growth, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 9378, December 2002.                ,    .].

,         ,  ,   , ,            ,     ,   ,     .               ,       [123 - .:   Wennerlind, Casualties of Credit, esp. 22325; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 47879; P. K. OBrien and S. L. Engerman, Exports and the Growth of the British Economy from the Glorious Revolution to the Peace of Amiens, in Barbara Solow, ed., Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 191.].

      ,     ,             ,   ,   .                 .          .       ,  , ,   ,   ,   ,        ,           ,    [124 - . : Peter Spencer, Samuel Greg, 17581834 (Styal, Cheshire, UK: Quarry Bank Mill, 1989).].

    ,       XVIII         .      -   ,         ,        .                ,            ,    ,       .          ,       .     ,   ,    ,         ,                      ,   .    ,            .

                  .       ,      ,      ,     ,         ,       .              (          ),         ,   ,         [125 - ., : Kevin H. ORourke and Je?rey G. Williamson, After Columbus: Explaining Europes Overseas Trade Boom, 15001800, Journal of Economic History 62 (2002): 41756; Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, Path Dependence, Time Lags and the Birth of Globalization: A Critique of ORourke and Williamson, European Review of Economic History 8 (2004): 81108; Janet Abu-Lughod, The World System in the Thirteenth Century: Dead-End or Precursor? (Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1993); Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).    Joseph E. Inikori,              . .: Joseph E. Inikori, Africa and the Globalization Process: Western Africa, 14501850, Journal of Global History (2007): 6386.].   ,                       .        ,     ,    .          ,                    .

         , ,    ,     .    XVIII    ,  ,  ,         . ,  1860   . ,        ,   :



                  ;          ,   ,                    ;   ,    ,        ,       Hamaca,        .       ,      .

  ,         ;   ,   ,             . ,     ,       ;     ,     .      , ,    ,   ,        ; ,   ,          [126 - Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 20.]





  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/sven-bekkert-18036255/imperiya-hlopka-vsemirnaya-istoriya/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


The Thirty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce for the Year 1859 (Manchester: Cave & Sever, 1860), 18, 19, 22, 23, 33, 34, 38, 39, 45.




2


Liverpool. By Order of the Liverpool Cotton Association Ltd., Catalogue of the Valuable Club Furnishings etc. to be Sold by Auction by Marsh Lyons & C?, Tuesday, 17th December 1963, Liverpool Records O?ce, Liverpool, UK.




3


I.E. Horn, La crise cotonniere et les textiles indigenes (Paris: Dentu, 1863), 6.




4


Monthly Economic Letter: U.S. and Global Market Fundamentals, Cotton Incorporated,  23  2013., http://www.cottoninc.com/corporate/Mar-ket-Data/MonthlyEconomicLetter/; The Fabric of Our Lives, http://www.thefabricofourlives.com/.




5


  Fast Facts About American Wool, American Sheep Industry Association  10  2013., http://www.sheepusa.org/get_?le/?le_id/5ab52656e6d6e32821aa9f177bf05876,     (    )    7,3 .              ,          . Government of South Australia, Grazing livestock a sustainable and productive approach, Adelaide & Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resource Management Board,  10  2013., www.amlrnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/2/landholders_info/grazing_web.pdf; European Union, CIA  The World Factbook,  16  2013., https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ee.html.      ,         ,        .       ,      ,        ,   CIA World Factbook  4 324 782 2.




6


Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher, and P.Jackson, 1835), 56; .: Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000);  ,  . ,       (:   , 2017).




7


Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton, 1998);  , ,   .    (: , 2009); David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998); Niall Ferguson, Civilization: The West and the Rest (New York: Allen Lane, 2011);  , .       (: , 2014); Robert Brenner, Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe, Past and Present, no. 70 (February 1976): 3075; Robert Brenner, The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism, Past and Present, no. 97 (November 1982): 16113; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Pantheon, 1963).




8


      ,  Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (New York: Russell & Russell, 1961); Rafael de Bivar Marquese, As desventuras de um conceito: Capitalismo historico e a historiogra?a sobre escravidao brasileira, Revista de Historia 169 (July/December 2013), 223253; Philip McMichael, Slavery in the Regime of Wage Labor: Beyond Paternalism in the U.S. Cotton Culture, Social Concept 6 (1991): 1028; Barbara L. Solow and Stanley L. Engerman, British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery: The Legacy of Eric Williams (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Norton, 1978); Joseph E. Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).




9


Cotton Supply Reporter, no. 37 (March 1, 1860): 33.




10


Andrew Ure, The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain Systematically Investigated, and Illustrated by 150 Original Figures, vol. 1 (London: Charles Knight, 1836), 6768.




11


Bruno Biedermann, Die Versorgung der russischen Baumwollindustrie mit Baum-wolle eigener Produktion (PhD dissertation, University of Heidelberg, 1907), 4; Edward Atkinson, Cotton: Articles from the New York Herald (Boston: Albert J. Wright, 1877), 4.




12


E.J. Donnell, Chronological and Statistical History of Cotton (New York: James Sutton & C?, 1872), v.




13


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14


Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 530531.




15


., , Gene Dattel, Cotton and Race in the Making ofAmerica: The Human Costs of Economic Power (Chicago: Ivan Dee, 2009); Morris de Camp Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton: The Fibre of Two Worlds and Many Ages (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1924).




16


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17


     ,  . ., : Sydney Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985); Mark Kurlansky, Salt: A World History (New York: Walker and Co., 2002);  ,    (: , 2007); Barbara Freese, Coal: A Human History (Cambridge, MA: Perseus, 2003); Pietra Rivoli, The Travels of a T-shirt in the Global Economy: An Economist Examines the Markets, Power and Politics of World Trade (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005); Larry Zuckerman, The Potato: How the Humble Spud Rescued the Western World (Boston: Faber & Faber, 1998); Wolfgang Monningho?, King Cotton: Kulturgeschichte der Baumwolle (Dusseldorf: Artemis & Winkler, 2006); Mark Kurlansky, Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World (New York: Walker & C?, 1997); Allan Macfarlane and Gerry Martin, Glass: A World History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); Stephen Ya?a, Big Cotton: How a Humble Fiber Created Fortunes, Wrecked Civilizations, and Put America on the Map (New York: Penguin, 2005); Erik Orsenna, Voyage aux pays du coton: Petit precis de mondialisation (Paris: Fayard, 2006); Iain Gateley, Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization (New York: Grove, 2001); Heinrich Eduard Jacob, Ka?ee: Die Biographie eines weltwirtschaftlichen Sto?es (Munich: Oekom Verlag, 2006).         1929 : Sergej Tretjakow, Die Biographie des Dings, in Heiner Boehnke, ed., Die Arbeit des Schriftstellers (Reinbeck: Rowolt, 1972), 8186;  ,  ,  . .  (.),  :      (: , 2000); Jens Soentgen, Geschichten uber Sto?e, Arbeitsblaetter fur die Sachbuchforschun (October 2005): 125; Jennifer Bair, Global Capitalism and Commodity Chains: Looking Back, Going Forward Competition and Change 9 (June 2005): 15380; Immanuel Wallerstein, Commodity Chains in the World-Economy, 15901790 (Binghamton, NY: Fernand Braudel Center, 2000).       William Cronon, Natures Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: Norton, 1991).          Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England; William J. Ashworth, The Ghost of Rostow: Science, Culture and the British Industrial Revolution, Historical Science 46 (2008): 24974.       David Harvey, Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Geography (New York: Routledge, 2001).




18


,    ,    G. hirsutum Palmeri,  ,   ,     ,       .    C. Wayne Smith and J. Tom Cothren, eds., Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 11; Angus Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2001), 263; Frances F. Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico: Production, Distribution and Uses, Mexican Studies 3 (1987): 241?.; Joseph B. Mount-joy, Prehispanic Cultural Development Along the Southern Coast of West Mexico, in Shirley Gorenstein, ed., Greater Mesoamerica: The Archeology of West and Northwest Mexico (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000), 106; Donald D. Brandt, The Primitive and Modern Economy of the Middle Rio Balsas, Guerrero and Michoacan, Eighth American Scienti?c Congress, Section 8, History and Geography (Washington, DC, 1940), Abstract;      XVI  .: Jose Rodriguez Vallejo, Ixcatl, el algodon mexicano (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1976), 64.




19


K. D. Hake and T. A. Kerby, Cotton and the Environment, Cotton Production Manual (UCANR Publications, 1996), 32427; Frederick Wilkinson, The Story of the Cotton Plant (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1899), 39.




20


 ()   Gavin Wright, The Political Economy ofthe Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Norton, 1978), 145,  Jason Clay, World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2004), 28487.




21


Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kaysar, and Mark Stoneking, Molecular Evolution of Pedicu-lus humanus and the Origin of Clothing, Current Biology 13 (August 19, 2003): 141415;        .: Eli-so Kvabadze et al., 30,000 Year-Old Wild Flax Fibres, Science 11 (September 2009): 1359.




22


Almut Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben: Entwicklung von Technik und Arbeit im Textil-gewerbe (Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1981), 32, 31; .: Kleidung, in Johannes Hoops, Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, vol. 16 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2000), 60325; Mary Schoeser, World Textiles: A Concise History (New York: Thames & Hudson World of Art, 2003), 20; Kleidung, in Max Ebert, ed., Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, vol. 6 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1926), 38094; Harry Bates Brown, Cotton: History, Species, Varieties, Morphology, Breeding, Culture, Diseases, Marketing, and Uses (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938), 1.




23


., : T. W. Rhys Davids, trans., Vinaya Texts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), 168; Georg Buehler, trans., The Sacred Laws of the Aryas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1882), 165, 169, 170; Vijaya Ramaswamy, Textiles and Weavers in South India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 1, 57; Doran Ross, ed., Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1998), 77; Frank Goldtooth,   Stanley A. Fishler, In the Beginning: A Navaho Creation Myth (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1953), 16; Aileen OBryan, The Dine: Origin Myths of the Navaho Indians, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 163 (Washington, DC: Government Printing O?ce, 1956), 38; Francesca Bray, Textile Production and Gender Roles in China, 10001700, Chinese Science 12 (1995): 116; Anthony Winterbourne, When the Norns Have Spoken: Fate in Germanic Paganism (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2004), 96.




24


C. L. Brubaker et al., The Origin and Domestication of Cotton, in C. Wayne Smith and J. Tom Cothren, eds., Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 4, 56, 12, 17, 22; Wafaa M. Amer and Osama A. Momtaz, Historic Background of Egyptian Cotton (2600 BC AD 1910), Archives ofNatural History 26 (1999): 219.




25


Thomas Robson Hay and Hal R. Taylor, Cotton, in William Darrach Halsey and Emanuel Friedman, eds., Colliers Encyclopedia, with Bibliography and Index (New York: Macmillan Educational Co., 1981), 387; A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th ed., revised by J. R. Harris (London: Edward Arnold, 1962), 147; Richard H. Meadow, The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Northwestern South Asia, in David R. Harris, ed., The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia (London: UCL Press, 1996), 396;       .: S. V. Puntambekar and N. S. Varadachari, Hand-Spinning and Hand-Weaving: An Essay (Ahmedabad: All India Spinners Association, 1926), 19; James Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (London: Simpkin, Marshall & C?, 1860), 1, 23; Brown, Cotton, 2; . : Herodotus, The Histories, ed. A. R. Burn, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt, rev. ed., Penguin Classics (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1972), 245; . : Arno S. Pearse, The Cotton Industry ofIndia, Being the Report of the Journey to India (Manchester: Taylor, Garnett, Evans, 1930), 15; J. Forbes Royle, On the Culture and Commerce of Cotton in India and Elsewhere: With an Account of the Experiments Made by the Hon. East India Company up to the Present Time (London: Smith, Elder & C?, 1851), 116?.




26


Brown, Cotton, 5; Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher, and P. Jackson, 1835), 6570; .: Prasannan Parthasarathi, Cotton Textiles in the Indian Subcontinent, 12001800, in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 12001850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 2325.




27


H. Wescher, Die Baumwolle im Altertum, in Ciba-Rundschau 45 (June 1940): 1635; Alwin Oppel, Die Baumwolle (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1902), 2067; . : Clinton G. Gilroy, The History of Silk, Cotton, Linen, Wool, and Other Fibrous Substances (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1845), 334; .: Marco Polo, Travels of Marco Polo (Westminster, MD: Modern Library, 2001), 174; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 56, 58.




28


A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), 48; M. D. C. Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton: The Fibre of Two Worlds and Many Ages (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1924), 46; Amer and Momtaz, Historic Background, 212; Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 209; William H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru (Westminster, MD: Modern Library, 2000), 51, 108, 300.




29


Gilroy, History of Silk, 33132; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 353; Barbara L. Stark, Lynette Heller, and Michael A. Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth: Mesoamerican Economic Change from the Perspective of Cotton in South-Central Veracruz, Latin American Antiquity 9 (March 1978): 9, 25, 27; Crawford, Heritage, 32, 35; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 355; Barbara Ann Hall, Spindle Whorls and Cotton Production at Middle Classic Matacapan and in the Gulf Lowlands, in Barbara L. Stark and Philip J. Arnold III, eds., Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gufl Lowlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997), 117, 133, 134.




30


Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor, History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza, 1st English edition, translated from the 2nd Spanish edition by Robert D. Wood (Culver City, CA: Labyrinthos, 1983), 197; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 23536, 239; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 356; R. B. Handy, History and General Statistics of Cotton, in The Cotton Plant: Its History, Botany, Chemistry, Culture, Enemies, and Uses, prepared under the supervision of A. C. True, United States Department of Agriculture, O?ce of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 33 (Washington, DC: Government Printing O?ce, 1896), 63; United States, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1975), Series K-550563, Hay, Cotton, Cottonseed, Shorn Wool, and Tobacco  Acreage, Production, and Price: 1790 to 1970, 518; Hall, Spindle Whorls, 118; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 238; Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 14, 29.




31


Brown, Cotton, 14; Kate Peck Kent, Prehistoric Textiles of the Southwest (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1983), 9, 27, 28, 29; . : Ward Alan Minge, E?ectos del Pais: A History of Weaving Along the Rio Grande, in Nora Fisher, ed., Rio Grande Textiles (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1994), 6; Kate Peck Kent, Pueblo Indian Textiles: A Living Tradition (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1983), 26; Crawford, Heritage, 37; David Watts, The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change Since 1492 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 65, 89, 174; Mann, Cotton Trade, 4; Christopher Columbus, November 4, 1492, The Diario of Christopher Columbuss?rst voyage to America: 14921493, abstracted by Fray Bartolome de las Casas, transcribed and translated into English, with notes and a concordance of the Spanish, by Oliver Dunn and James E. Kelley Jr. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989), 13135; .:   16 , 3   5  1492., 8591, 131, 135.




32


Pliny the Elder, The Natural History ofPliny, vol. 4, trans. John Bostock and H. T. Riley (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1856), 13435; Mann, Cotton Trade, 3. Christopher Ehret, The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2002), 6768; Ross, Wrapped in Pride, 75; Lars Sundstrom, The Trade of Guinea (Lund: Hakan Ohlssons Boktryckeri, 1965), 148; F. L. Grif?th and G. M. Crowfoot, On the Early Use of Cotton in the Nile Valley, Journal of Egyptian Archeology 20 (1934): 7; Amer and Momtaz, Historic Background, 212, 214, 215, 217.




33


M. Kouame Aka, Production et circulation des cotonnades en Afrique de lOuest du XIeme siecle a la ?n de la conquette coloniale (1921) (PhD dissertation, Universite de Cocody-Abidjan, 2013), 18, 41; Marion Johnson, Technology, Competition, and African Crafts, in Clive Dewey and A. G. Hopkins, eds., The Imperial Impact: Studies in the Economic History ofAfrica and India (London: Athlone Press, 1978), 176, 195, 201; Venice Lamb and Judy Holmes, Nigerian Weaving (Roxford: H. A. & V. M. Lamb, 1980), 15, 16; Marion Johnson, Cloth Strips and History, West African Journal of Archaeology 7 (1977): 169; Philip D. Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975), 48; Marion Johnson, Cloth as Money: The Cloth Strip Currencies of Africa, in Dale Idiens and K. G. Pointing, Textiles ofAfrica (Bath: Pasold Research Fund, 1980), 201.  -      . Patricia Davison and Patrick Harries, Cotton Weaving in South-east Africa: Its History and Technology, in Idiens and Pointing, Textiles ofAfrica, 177, 179, 180; Marie Philiponeau, Le coton et lIslam: Fil dune histoire africaine (Algiers: Casbah Editions, 2009), 15, 17; Ross, Wrapped in Pride, 75; Rita Bolland, Tellem Textiles: Archaeological Findsfrom Burial Caves in Malis Bandiagara Cli?(Leiden: Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, 1991); Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa and of the Notable Things Therein Contained, Done in the English in the Year 1600 by John Pory, vol. 3 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1896), 823, 824.




34


        .: Meadow, Origins, 397.




35


Brown, Cotton, 8; Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 11001600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 11, 15, 1718; Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials, 148; Hartmut Schmoekel, Ur, Assur und Babylon: Drei Jahrtausende im Zweistromland (Stuttgart: Gustav Klipper Verlag, 1958), 131; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 27; Richard W. Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels in Early Islamic Iran: A Moment in World History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 1, 8, 46; Marco Polo, Travels, 22, 26, 36, 54, 58, 59, 60, 174, 247, 253, 255.




36


Chao Kuo-Chun, Agrarian Policy of the Chinese Communist Party, 19211959 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 5, 8?.




37


Craig Dietrich, Cotton Culture and Manufacture in Early Ching China, in W. E. Willmott, ed., Economic Organization in Chinese Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972), 111?.; Mi Chu Wiens, Cotton Textile Production and Rural Social Transformation in Early Modern China, Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 7 (December 1974): 516, 517?., 519; Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, eds., The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 7, The Ming Dynasty, 13681644, part 1 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 256, 507; Kenneth Pomeranz, Beyond the East-West Binary: Resituating Development Paths in the Eighteenth-Century World, Journal of Asian Studies 61 (May 2002): 569; United States, Historical Statistics, 518.




38


Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 14501680, vol. 1, The Lands Below the Winds (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 90; Crawford, Heritage, 7; William B. Hauser, Economic Institutional Change in Tokugawa Japan: Osaka and the Kinai Cotton Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 11720; Mikio Sumiya and Koji Taira, eds., An Outline ofJapanese Economic History, 16031940: Major Works and Research Findings (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1979), 99100.




39


Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 10, 29; Howard F. Cline, The Spirit of Enterprise in Yucatan, in Lewis Hanke, ed., History of Latin American Civilization, vol. 2 (London: Methuen, 1969), 137; Johnson, Technology, 259; Thomas J. Bassett, The Peasant Cotton Revolution in West Africa: Cote dIvoire, 18801995 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 33; James Forbes, Oriental Memoirs: A Narrative of Seventeen Years Residence in India, vol. 2 (London: Richard Bentley, 1834), 34; Moritz Schanz, Die Baumwolle in Russisch-Asien, Beihefte zum Tropenp?anzer 15 (1914): 2;  .: Tozaburo Tsukida, Kankoku ni okeru mensaku chosa (Tokyo: No-shomu sho noji shikenjyo, 1905), 13, 7683.




40


Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 201; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 241; Hall, Spindle Whorls, 120; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 147; Curtin, Economic Change, 50, 212; Brown, Cotton, 8; Reid, Southeast Asia, 93; Gilroy, History ofSilk, 339; Carla M. Sinopoli, The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c. 13501650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 185; A. Campbell, Notes on the State of the Arts of Cotton Spinning, Weaving, Printing and Dyeing in Nepal, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) 5 (January to December 1836): 222.




41


Hall, Spindle Whorls, 115, 116, 120, 122, 124; Davison and Harries, Cotton Weaving, 182; Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 209; Prescott, Conquest of Peru, 51; Gilroy, History of Silk, 339, 343; Curtin, Economic Change, 213; Kent, Prehistoric Textiles, 35; Kent, Pueblo Indian, 28; Reid, Southeast Asia, 93; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 14849; Lamb and Holmes, Nigerian Weaving, 1011; Johnson, Technology, 261.




42


Reid, Southeast Asia, 94.




43


Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 242, 259; Mote and Twitchett, Ming Dynasty, 507, 690?.; K. N. Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, in Tirthankar Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce: Textiles in Colonial India (Waltnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1996), 71; Wiens, Cotton Textile, 520; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 177.




44


Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 242; Bray, Textile Production, 119; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 162; Curtin, Economic Change, 212; Davison and Harries, Cotton Weaving, 187; Johnson, Cloth as Money, 193202; Reid, Southeast Asia, 90; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 164; Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 9.




45


Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 356; Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels, 46, 59; Philiponeau, Coton et lIslam, 25; Pedro Machado, Awash in a Sea of Cloth: Gujarat, Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Trade, 13001800, in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 12001850 (New York: Oxford University Press 2009), 16179;     ,    ,   Gil J. Stein, Rethinking World-Systems: Diasporas, Colonies, and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), 173.




46


.: Hall, Spindle Whorls, 115; Stark, Heller, and Ohnersorgen, People with Cloth, 9; Berdan, Cotton in Aztec Mexico, 247?., 258; Kent, Prehistoric Textiles, 28; Volney H.Jones, A Summary of Data on Aboriginal Cotton of the Southwest, University of New Mexico Bulletin, Symposium on Prehistoric Agriculture, vol. 296 (October 15, 1936), 60; Reid, Southeast Asia, 91; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 147; Bassett, Peasant Cotton, 34; Curtin, Economic Change, 21213; Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman State: Economy and Society, 13001600, in Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 13001914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 296; Hauser, Economic Institutional Change, 59.




47


Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 156, 157; Ramaswamy, Textiles, 25, 7072; Chaudhuri, Organisation, 55; Inalcik, Ottoman State, 352; Mann, Cotton Trade, 23, 23; Smith and Cothren, Cotton, 6869; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 24, 76; Wescher, Die Baumwolle, 1639; Gilroy, History ofSilk, 321; John Peter Wild and Felicity Wild, Rome and India: Early Indian Cotton Textiles from Berenike, Red Sea Coast of Egypt, in Ruth Barnes, ed., Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies (New York: Routledge, 2005), 1116; Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study in the Impact of European Expansion on Precapitalist Economy (New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 1975), 3; . : Inalcik, Ottoman State, 355, . : 350, 354, 355; .: Eliyahu Ashtor, The Venetian Cotton Trade in Syria in the Later Middle Ages, Studi Medievali, ser. 3, vol. 17 (1976): 690; Suraiya Faroqhi, Crisis and Change, 15901699, in Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 13001914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 524; Eugen Wirt, Aleppo im 19. Jahrhundert, in Hans Geord Majer, ed., Osmanische Studien zur Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986), 186205; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 179.




48


Crawford, Heritage, 6, 69; Reid, Southeast Asia, 90, 95; quoted in Sinnappah Arasa-ratnam and Aniruddha Ray, Masulipatnam and Cambay: A History of Two Port-Towns, 15001800 (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1994), 121;        ,         .: Gopal, Commerce and Crafts, 16, 80, 160; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 911; Beverly Lemire, Revising the Historical Narrative: India, Europe, and the Cotton Trade, c. 13001800, in Riello and Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World, 226.




49


B. C. Allen, Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: Dacca (Allahabad: Pioneer Press, 1912), 106; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 186; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 75; Ramaswamy, Textiles, 44, 53, 55; Wiens, Cotton Textile, 522, 528; Yueksel Duman, Notables, Textiles and Copper in Ottoman Tokat, 17501840 (PhD dissertation, Binghamton University, 1998); Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 22; Max Freiherrn von Oppenheim, Der Tell Halaf: Eine neue Kultur im altesten Mesopotamien (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1931), 70; Sundstrom, Trade of Guinea, 147; Lamb and Holmes, Nigerian Weaving, 10; Curtin, Economic Change, 48; Aka, Production, 69; Youssoupha Mbargane Guisse, Ecrire lhistoire economique des artisans et createurs de lAfrique de lOuest (presentation, Universite de Dakar, Senegal, December 2011); Hauser, Economic Institutional Change, 2030.




50


Chaudhuri, Organisation, 49, 51, 53; Hameeda Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers: Impact of the Con?ict Between the Revenue and Commercial Interests of the East India Company, 17501800, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 117. Suraiya Faroqhi, Notes on the Production of Cotton and Cotton Cloth in Sixteenthand Seventeenth-Century Anatolia, in Huri Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 267, 268; Inalcik, Ottoman State,; Huri Islamoglu-Inan, State and Peasant in the Ottoman Empire: Agrarian Power Relations and Regional Economic Development in Ottoman Anatolia During the Sixteenth Century (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994), 223, 235; Socrates D. Petmezas, Patterns of Protoindustrialization in the Ottoman Empire: The Case of Eastern Thessaly, ca. 17501860, Journal of European Economic History (1991): 589; Prasannan Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, in Burton Stein and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds., Institutions and Economic Change in South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 96, 98; S. Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company: The Handloom Industry in Southeastern India, 175090, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 87; Bray, Textile Production, 127.




51


Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 349; Angela Lakwete, Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2005), 1112; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 7482, 89; Smith and Hirth, Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning, 35455; John H. A. Munro, Textiles, Towns and Trade: Essays in the Economic History of Late-Medieval England and the Low Countries (Brook?eld, VT: Variorum, 1994), 8, 15; Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Cotton Industry of Northern Italy in the Late Middle Ages, 11501450, Journal of Economic History 32 (1972): 274.




52


Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, Creating Abundance: Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 1089; John Hebron Moore, Cotton Breeding in the Old South, Agricultural History 30, no. 3 (July 1956): 95104; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Ante-Bellum Mississippi (New York: Bookman Associates, 1958), 1336, 97; Lewis Cecil Gray, History ofAgriculture in the Southern United States to 1860, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933), 689 90; James Lawrence Watkins, King Cotton: A Historical and Statistical Review, 1790 to 1908 (New York: J. L. Watkins, 1908), 13; Bassett, Peasant Cotton, 33; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 2021; Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels, 40; Chaudhuri, Organisation, 75.




53


Mahatma Gandhi, The Indian Cotton Textile Industry: Its Past, Present and Future (Calcutta: G. N. Mitra, 1930), 6.




54


. : Henry Lee, The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary: A Curious Fable of the Cotton Plant (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1887), 5.




55


Mann, Cotton Trade, 5; Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 39; .:   Museu Textil i dIndumentaria, Barcelona, Spain.




56


,            ,  Baumwolle,    Lexikon des Mittelalters, vol. 1 (Munich: Artemis Verlag, 1980), 1670.




57


Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 16001780 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931), 15; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 263; Ashtor, Venetian Cotton, 677.




58


         ,   , , ,  ,   . .: Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 268; Wescher, Die Baumwolle, 1643, 1644; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 114.




59


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 64, 66, 69; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 271, 273, 276; Wescher, Die Baumwolle, 1643.




60


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 7, 29, 63; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 265.




61


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 53; Ashtor, Venetian Cotton, 675, 697; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 35; Ashtor, Venetian Cotton, 676.




62


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 6566, 7482; Angela Lakwete, Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2005), 1112; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 7482, 89; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 274, 275; Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben, 6566, 37, 63, 67, 114, 115; .: Karl-Heinz Ludwig, Spinnen im Mittelalter unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der Arbeiten cum rota, Technikgeschichte 57 (1990): 78; Eric Broudy, The Book ofLooms: A History of the Handloomfrom Ancient Times to the Present (Hanover, NH: Brown University Press, 1979), 102; Munro, Textiles, 8, 15.




63


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, xi, 29.




64


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 139, 144, 150, 152; Mazzaoui, Cotton Industry, 282, 284; Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 8486; Eugen Nubling, Ulms Baumwollweberei im Mittelalter (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1890), 146.




65


Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 32; Goetz Freiherr von Poelnitz, Die Fugger (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1981); Richard Ehrenberg, Capital and Finance in the Age of the Renaissance: A Study of the Fuggers and Their Connections, trans. H. M. Lucas (New York: Harcourt, 1928).




66


Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 1, 2, 8, 21, 128, 139, 148; Nubling, Ulms Baumwollwebe-rei, 141; Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben, 152.




67


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 141; Von Stromer, Die Grundung, 88.




68


Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 55, 54, 154; Wadsworth and Mann, Cotton Trade, 23; Inalcik, Ottoman State, 365; Daniel Go?man, Izmir: From Village to Colonial Port City, in Edhem Eldem, Daniel Go?man, and Bruce Masters, eds., The Ottoman City Between East and West: Aleppo, Izmir, and Istanbul (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 79134.




69


Nubling, Ulms Baumwollweberei, 166.




70


         ,         ,            .        Gil J. Stein, Rethinking World-Systems: Diasporas, Colonies, and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), 171.




71


Om Prakash, The New Cambridge History ofIndia vol. 2, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 23; Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study in the Impact ofEuropean Expansion on Precapitalist Economy (New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 1975), 1011, 18, 26, 28, 58.




72


Celine Cousquer, Nantes: Une capitalefran?aise des Indiennes au XVIIIe si?cle (Nantes: Coi?ard Editions, 2002), 17.




73


Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company: The Handloom Industry in Southeastern India, 175090, in Tirthankar Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce: Textiles in Colonial India (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1996), 90; James Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (London: Simpkin, Marshall & C?, 1860), 2; Walter R. Cassels, Cotton: An Account of Its Culture in the Bombay Presidency (Bombay: Bombay Education Societys Press, 1862), 77; Beverly Lemire, Fashions Favourite: The Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 16601800 (Oxford: Pasold Research Fund, 1991), 15; Hameeda Hossain, The Company Weavers of Bengal: The East India Company and the Organization of Textile Production in Bengal, 17501813 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988), 65; Proceeding, Bombay Castle, November 10, 1776, in Bombay Commercial Proceedings, P/414, 47, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 16001850, CEPR Discussion Paper No. 5183, London, Centre for Economic Policy Research, August 2005, Table 3, p. 32; Daniel Defoe and John McVeagh, A Review of the State of the British Nation, vol. 4, 170708 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2006), 606.




74


., : Factory Records, Dacca, 1779, Record Group G 15, col. 21 (1779), in Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; John Irwin and P. R. Schwartz, Studies in Indo-European Textile History (Ahmedabad, 1966).




75


K. N. Chaudhuri, European Trade with India, in The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 1, c. 1200c. 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 4056; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 92, 94; ., : Copy of the Petition of Dadabo Monackjee, Contractor for the Investment anno 1779, in Factory Records, G 36 (Surat), 58, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Cousquer, Nantes, 31.




76


Hameeda Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers: Impact of the Con?ict Between the Revenue and Commercial Interests of the East India Company, 17501800, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 119, 117; Atul Chandra Pradhan, British Trade in Cotton Goods and the Decline of the Cotton Industry in Orissa, in Nihar Ranjan Patnaik, ed., Economic History of Orissa (New Delhi: Indus Publishing Co., 1997), 244; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 90; Shantha Hariharan, Cotton Textiles and Corporate Buyers in Cottonopolis: A Study of Purchases and Prices in Gujarat, 16001800 (Delhi: Manak Publications, 2002), 49.




77


Memorandum of the Method of Providing Cloth at Dacca, 1676, in in Factory Records, Miscellaneous, vol. 26, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.




78


Minutes of the Commercial Proceedings at Bombay Castle, April 15, 1800, in Minutes of Commercial Proceedings at Bombay Castle from April 15, 1800 to 31st December 1800, in Bombay Commercial Proceedings, P/414, Box 66, India O?ce Library, British Library, London; Copy of the Petition of Dadabo Monackjee, 1779, Factory Records Surat, 1780, Box 58, record G 36 (Surat), Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Report of John Taylor on the Cotton Textiles of Dacca, Home Miscellaneous Series, 456, p. 91, India O?ce Library, British Library, London; Lakshmi Subramanian, Indigenous Capital and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Surat and the West Coast (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 15.




79


John Styles, What Were Cottons for in the Early Industrial Revolution? in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 12001850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 30726. Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman State: Economy and Society, 13001600, in Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 13001914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 354; Pedro Machado, Awash in a Sea of Cloth: Gujarat, Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Trade, 13001800, in Riello and Parthasarasi, The Spinning World, 169; Subramanian, Indigenous Capital, 4.




80


Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 11001600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 157.




81


Assessing the Slave Trade, The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database,  5  2013., http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces.




82


David Richardson, West African Consumption Patterns and Their In?uence on the Eighteenth-Century English Slave Trade, in Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn, eds. The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Academic Press, 1979), 304; Joseph C. Miller, Imports at Luanda, Angola 17851823, in G. Liesegang, H. Pasch, and A.Jones, eds. Figuring African Trade: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Quanti?cation and Structure of the Import and Export and Long- Distance Trade in Africa 18001913 (Berlin, 1986), 164, 192; George Metcalf, A Microcosm of Why Africans Sold Slaves: Akan Consumption Patterns in the 1770s, Journal ofAfrican History 28, no. 3 (January 1, 1987): 37880.




83


Harry Hamilton Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition: A Record of Scienti?c Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London, 1886), 45; . : Jeremy Prestholdt, On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism, American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (June 1, 2004): 761, 765; Robert Harms, The Diligent: A Voyage Through the Worlds of the Slave Trade (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 81; Miles to Shoolbred, 25 July 1779, T70/1483, Public Records O?ce, London, . : Metcalf, A Microcosm of Why Africans Sold Slaves, 388.




84


. : Carl Wennerlind, Casualties of Credit: The English Financial Revolution, 16201720 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011); Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations, bk. IV, ch. VII, pt. II, vol. II, Edwin Cannan, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 75.




85


Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry, 162; Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 16001780 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931), 116; Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 5; Wolfgang von Stromer, Die Grundung der Baumwollindustrie in Mitteleuropa (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1978), 28; H. Wescher, Die Baumwolle im Altertum, in Ciba-Rundschau 45 (June 1940): 164445.




86


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 11, 15, 19, 21, 72.




87


18.Ibid., 4, 5, 27, 29, 42, 55, 73.           . .: Herman van der Wee, The Western European Woolen Industries, 15001750, in David Jenkins, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 399.




88


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 36.




89


Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 6; Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (London: Fisher, Fisher and Jackson, 1835), 109; Bernard Lepetit, Frankreich, 17501850, in Wolfram Fischer et al., eds, Handbuch der Europaeischen Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte, vol. 4 (Stuttgart: Klett-Verling fur Wissen und Bildung, 1993), 487.




90


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 187.




91


   .: Elena Frangakis-Syrett, Trade Between the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe: The Case of Izmir in the Eighteenth Century, New Perspectives on Turkey 2 (1988): 118; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 304; Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 23.   ,                  ,    ; .: Thomas Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain: Including a History of the Liverpool Cotton Market (London and Liverpool: E?ngham Wilson, 1886), 81.   .: Nicolas Svoronos, Le commerce de Salonique au XVIIIe siecle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1956); Manchester Cotton Supply Association, Cotton Culture in New or Partially Developed Sources of Supply: Report ofProceedings (Manchester: Cotton Supply Association, 1862), 30, . : Oran Kurmus, The Cotton Famine and Its E?ects on the Ottoman Empire, in Huri Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 161; Resat Kasaba, The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), 21.     . : Bruce McGowan, Economic Life in Ottoman Europe: Taxation, Trade and the Strugglefor Land, 16001800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).




92


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 183; Treasury Department, T 70/1515, Allotment of goods to be sold by the Royal African Company of England, National Archives of the UK, Kew.




93


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 186; Lowell Joseph Ragatz, Statistics for the Study of British Caribbean Economic History, 17631833 (London: Bryan Edwards Press, 1927), 22; Lowell Joseph Ragatz, The Fall of the Planter Class in the British Caribbean (New York: Century Co., 1928), 39.




94


          Elena Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century (17001820) (Athens: Centre for Asia Minor Studies, 1992), 14; Svoronos, Le commerce de Salonique au XVIIIe siecle, 246.




95


Joseph E. Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 42931.




96


Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 100; K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 16601760 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 259; Debendra Bijoy Mitra, The Cotton Weavers of Bengal, 17571833 (Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Limited, 1978), 5; Prasannan Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, in Burton Stein and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds., Institutions and Economic Change in South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 89.




97


Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 85; Diary, Consultation, 18 January 1796, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai;        Mitra, The Cotton Weavers ofBengal, 4; B. C. Allen, Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: Dacca (Allahabad: Pioneer Press, 1912), 3839; Subramanian, Indigenous Capital, 2023, 332.




98


K. N. Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, in Roy, Cloth and Commerce, 59.




99


Commercial Board Minute laid before the Board, Surat, 12 September 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai.




100


  Gamut Farmer, President, Surat, to Mr. John Gri?th, Esq., Governor in Council Bombay, 12 December 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 86; Board of Trade, Report of Commercial Occurrences, 12 September 1787, in Reports to the Governor General from the Board of Trade, RG 172, Box 393, Home Miscellaneous, India O?ce Records, British Library, London; Letter from John Gri?th, Bombay Castle to William [illegible], Esq., Chief President, 27 October 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive; Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers, 121, 125; Mitra, The Cotton Weavers of Bengal, 9; Dispatch, London, 29 May 1799, in Bombay Dispatches, E/4, 1014, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.




101


Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, 99100; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 107, 109; Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, 5859; Chaudhuri, The Trading World ofAsia and the English East India Company, 261.




102


Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 102, 107; Mitra, The Cotton Weavers of Bengal, 48; Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers, 12425.




103


Bowanny Sankar Mukherjee . : Hossain, The Alienation of Weavers, 129;    .: Om Prakah, Textile Manufacturing and Trade Without and with Coercion: The Indian Experience in the Eighteenth Century (unpublished paper, Global Economic History Network Conference Osaka, December 2004), 26, http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Rese-arch/GEHN/GEHNPDF/PrakashGEHN5.pdf; Hossain, The Company Weavers of Bengal, 52; Vijaya Ramaswamy, Textiles and Weavers in South India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), xiii, 170; Copy of Letter from Board of Directors, London, 20 April, 1795, to our President in Council at Bombay, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, in Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai.




104


    Mitra, The Cotton Weavers ofBengal, 7;    Chaudhuri, The Trading World ofAsia and the English East India Company, 252; Arasaratnam, Weavers, Merchants and Company, 103; .: Details Regarding Weaving in Bengal, Home Miscellaneous Series, 795, pp. 1822, India O?ce Library, British Library, London.




105


Commercial Board Minute laid before the Board, Surat, 12 September 1795, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai; Homes Miscellaneous Series, 795, pp. 1822, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London. . : Parthasarathi, Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism, 94.




106


Amalendu Guha, The Decline of Indias Cotton Handicrafts, 18001905: A Quantitative Macro-study, Calcutta Historical Journal 17 (1989): 4142; Chaudhuri, The Organisation and Structure of Textile Production in India, 60;     178687         16 403 . Homes Miscellaneous Series, 795, pp. 1822, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London; Diary, Consultation, 18 January 1796, in Surat Factory Diary No. 53, part 1, 17951796, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai.




107


Dispatch from East India Company, London to Bombay, 22 March 1765, in Dispatches to Bombay, E/4, 997, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London, p. 611.




108


Report of the Select Committee of the Court of Directors of the East India Company, Upon the Subject of the Cotton Manufacture of this Country, 1793, Home Miscellaneous Series, 401, p. 1, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.




109


Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 430; Inalcik, The Ottoman State, 355.




110


M. D. C. Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton: The Fibre of Two Worlds and Many Ages (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1924), xvii;   . : Cassels, Cotton, 1;    Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 75; Defoe and McVeagh, A Review of the State of the British Nation, vol. 4, 6056; Copy of Memorial of the Callicoe Printers to the Lords of the Treasury, Received, May 4, 1779, Treasury Department, T 1, 552, National Archives of the UK, Kew. .:     The Memorial of the Several Persons whose Names are herunto subscribed on behalf of themselves and other Callico Printers of Great Britain, received July 1, 1780, at the Lords Commissioners of His Majestys Treasury, Treasury Department, T1, 563/7278, National Archives of the UK, Kew.




111


. : S. V. Puntambekar and N. S. Varadachari, Hand-Spinning and Hand-Weaving: An Essay (Ahmedabad: All India Spinners Association, 1926), 49, 51?., 58; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 43132; Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton, xvii; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 79; Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 132; Crawford, The Heritage of Cotton, xvii; Lemire, Fashions Favourite, 42; Petition to the Treasury by Robert Gardiner, in Treasury Department, T1, 517/ 100101, Public Records O?ce, London; Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 128; Letter of Vincent Mathias to the Treasury, 24 July 1767, Treasury Department, T 1, 457, National Archives of the UK, London.




112


Cousquer, Nantes, 12, 23, 43; Arret du conseil detat du roi, 10 Juillet 1785 (Paris: LIm-primerie Royale, 1785), Andre Zysberg, Les Galeriens: Vies et destiny de 60,000 porcats sur les galeres de France, 16801748 (Paris: Sevid, 1987); Marc Vigie, Les Galeriens du Roi, 16611715 (Paris: Fayard, 1985).




113


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 11819; Examen des e?ets que doivent produire dans le commerce de France, lusage et lafabrication des toiles peintes (Paris: Chez la Veuve Delaguette, 1759); Friedrich Wilhelm, King of Prussia, Edict dass von Dato an zu rechnen nach Ablaufacht Monathen in der Chur-Marck Magdeburgischen, Halberstadtschem und Pommern niemand einigen gedruckten oder gemahlten Zitz oder Cattun weiter tragen soll (Berlin: G. Schlechtiger, 1721); Yuksel Duman, Notables, Textiles and Copper in Ottoman Tokat, 17501840 (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton, 1998), 14445.




114


Legoux de Flaix, Essai historique, geographique et politique sur lIndoustan, avec le tableau de son commerce, vol. 2 (Paris: Pougin, 1807), 326; Lemire, Fashions Favourite, 342.




115


. : George Bryan Souza, Convergence Before Divergence: Global Maritime Economic History and Material Culture, International Journal of Maritime History 17, 1 (2005): 1727; Georges Roques, La maniere de negocier dans les Indes Orientales, Bibliotheque National, Paris, Fonds Francais 14 614; Paul R. Schwartz, Limpression sur coton a Ahmedabad (Inde) en 1678, Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, no. 1 (1967): 925; Cousquer, Nantes, 1820; Jean Ryhiner, Traite sur lafabrication et le commerce des toiles peintes, commences en 1766, Archive du Musee de lImpression sur Eto?es, Mulhouse, France. . : 1758 Re?exions sur les avantages de la librefabrication et de lusage des toiles peintes en France (Geneva: n. p., 1758), Archive du Musee de lImpression sur Eto?es, Mulhouse, France; M. Delormois, Lart defaire lindienne a linstar dAngleterre, et de composer toutes les couleurs, bon teint, propres a lindienne (Paris: Charles-Antoine Jambert, 1770); Legoux de Flaix, Essai historique, vol. 2, 165, 331, . : Florence dSouza, Legoux de Flaixs Observations on Indian Technologies Unknown in Europe, in K. S. Mathew, ed., French in India and Indian Nationalism, vol. 1 (Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation, 1999), 32324.




116


Dorte Raaschou, Un document Danois sur la fabrication des toiles Peintes a Tranquebar, aux Indes, a la ?n du XVIII siecle, in Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, no. 4 (1967): 921; Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 119; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 432; . : Philosophical Magazine 30 (1808): 259; . : Philosophical Magazine 1 (1798): 4. . : S. D. Chapman, The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1972), 12; Philosophical Magazine 1 (1798): 126.




117


Cotton Goods Manufacturers, Petition to the Lords Commissioner of His Majestys Treasury, Treasury Department, T 1, 676/30, Public Record O?ce, London; Dispatch, November 21, 1787, Bombay Dispatches, E/4, 1004, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.




118


Chapman, The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution, 16.




119


Marion Johnson, Technology, Competition, and African Crafts, in Clive Dewey and A. G. Hopkins, eds., The Imperial Impact: Studies in the Economic History of Africa and India (London: Athlone Press, 1978), 262; Irwin and Schwartz, Studies in Indo-European Textile History, 12.  ,    XVIII        ,   80  90%   . J. S. Hogendorn and H. A. Gemery, The Hidden Half  of the Anglo-African Trade in the Eighteenth Century: The Signi?cance of Marion Johnsons Statistical Research, in David Henige and T. C. McCaskie, eds., West African Economic and Social History: Studies in Memory of Marion Johnson (Madison: African Studies Program, University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 90; Extract Letter, East India Company, Commercial Department, London, to Bombay, May 4, 1791, in Home Miss. 374, India O?ce, Oriental and India O?ce Records, British Library, London; Cousquer, Nantes, 32; de Flain is quoted in Richard Roberts, West Africa and the Pondicherry Textile Industry, in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 142.




120


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 116, 127, 147; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 43435; 448; Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations, bk. IV, ch. I, vol. I, 470.




121


Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 131;   , 122, 151, 154; Extract Letter to Bombay, Commercial Department, May 4th, 1791, in Home Miscellaneous 374, Oriental and India O?ce Collections, British Library, London.




122


Maurice Dobb, Studies in the Development of Capitalism (New York: International Publishers, 1947), 277; George Unwin,    George W. Daniels, The Early English Cotton Industry (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1920), xxx.     Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson, The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional Change and Economic Growth, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 9378, December 2002.                ,    .




123


.:   Wennerlind, Casualties of Credit, esp. 22325; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, 47879; P. K. OBrien and S. L. Engerman, Exports and the Growth of the British Economy from the Glorious Revolution to the Peace of Amiens, in Barbara Solow, ed., Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 191.




124


. : Peter Spencer, Samuel Greg, 17581834 (Styal, Cheshire, UK: Quarry Bank Mill, 1989).




125


., : Kevin H. ORourke and Je?rey G. Williamson, After Columbus: Explaining Europes Overseas Trade Boom, 15001800, Journal of Economic History 62 (2002): 41756; Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, Path Dependence, Time Lags and the Birth of Globalization: A Critique of ORourke and Williamson, European Review of Economic History 8 (2004): 81108; Janet Abu-Lughod, The World System in the Thirteenth Century: Dead-End or Precursor? (Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1993); Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).    Joseph E. Inikori,              . .: Joseph E. Inikori, Africa and the Globalization Process: Western Africa, 14501850, Journal of Global History (2007): 6386.




126


Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 20.


