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   Yale University Press     The Van Lear Agency LLC



Originally published by Yale University Press



         ٸ



 Andrew Pettegree, 2014

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 1704      -  :    [1 - Weekly Review of the Affairs of France (17 February 1704). Defoes Review (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2003-11). William L. Payne, The Best of Defoes Review: An Anthology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951).].    ,     ,        .              .   (. The Review) (    )  ,   ,   .      .               ,       .

 .    ,          . ,    .   1712        ,  ,       .   ,  ,     .    ,         ,    .     ,       [2 - Review (fasc. edn, New York, 1938), viii, 708, book 21. Quoted Harold Love, The Culture and Commerce of Texts (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998), p. 3. See now also Dror Wahrman, Mr. Colliers Letter Rack: A Tale of Art and Illusion at the Threshold of the Modern Information Age (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 1929.].

   ,            .    蠫.                     .           The Review. ,           .  ,  ? -,   [3 -          :   VI,  2,  IV,  4;   VI,  3,  II,  1;  III,  IV,  2  4;  ,  V,  2;  ,  1,  2;  ,  1,  1; ,  IV,  7;  ,  1,  2;  ,  1,  2; ,  1,  7.    .].         ,      :  ?    ?     ?[4 - Claude Holyband, The French Littelton (London: Richard Field, 1593). Below, Chapter 6.]

       ,    1450  1530    .                   ,     ,     .   ,            . ,      .

           1400  1800.    ,      ,     ,         .         XVIII        ,         .     .




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 ,      ,  ,   ,    .      .  XI     ,        ,      ,         [5 - The historie of Cambria, now called Wales (1584), sig. vr.        .].

 ,    ,           .      ,       .        ,   .    ,    ,   .  , ,       ,  ,     .  ,          ,   ,      .        .        ,               .

 ,     ,         . ,     ,              .       ,       [6 - Jurg Zulliger, Ohne Kommunikation wurde Chaos herrschen. Zur Bedeutung von Informationsaustauch, Briefverkehr und Boten bei Bernhard von Clairvaux, Archiv fur Kulturgeschichte, 78 (1996), pp. 251-76. ,  1.].   -       .           .             ,   .          ,  .  ,  ,    ,    . ,  ,       ,     ; ,   - ,     ;         . ,  ,          .     ,    ,      ,      [7 - ,  2.].

    XVI XVII     ,     .      XVI        ,    ,    : , ,        ,    .      ,    ,     . , 1588      ,        ;    ,      ,     .     ,      .

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           .       XVII      ,      ,   ,       .         ,      .            ?  -       ?[9 - Nate Silver, The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail but Some Dont (New York: Penguin, 2012).]

,    ,    ,      , -  ,     .       .  ,  ,       ,     ,   :    ,   ,         .  1561       ,     ,      ,    ,      ,       [10 - Ulinka Rublack, The Crimes of Women in Early Modern Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 1619.].       ,    .      ,   :  ? , ,   -       ,  , ,     .        ,       .

        ,         ,         .        ,     ʸ   XVI.  ,      .      ,    ,     ,       [11 - Matthew Lundin, Paper Memory: A Sixteenth-Century Townsman Writes his World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).].    ,     ,      ,     .  ,           ,    ,    ,  ,       .  ,   ,  ʸ,   ,       .        .      ,        .        ,   - .  1585           ,         ,       .      ,      .     ,   ,      ,   -     .       ,  , ,     :      - ,       ,                 [12 -  , . 243.].

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   ,     ,   ,     ,    . ,      ,     ,  ,    ,     .  ,  ,     ,   ,   ,        ,    ,        . ,   ,   ꠫ .     ,        ,      ,          [15 - ,  4.].      .        ,      ,        .        .






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          .   ,              . ,        ,         .            ,   .     ,    ,    .        ,        ,         [16 - ,  7.].        ,       ,     [17 - Allyson Creasman, Censorship and Civic Order in Reformation Germany, 15171648 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2012).].         ,      ,   [18 - Jan Bloemendal, Peter G. F. Eversmann and Else Strietman (eds), Drama, Performance and Debate: Theatre and Public Opinion in the Early Modern Period (Leiden: Brill, 2013);      12.].         .

           .  ,        :  ,          ,       .       [19 - - publier. . Kate van Orden, Cheap Print and Street Song Following the Saint Bartholomews Massacres of 1572, in van Orden (ed.), Music and the Cultures of Print (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000), pp. 271323.].         ,       .

  ,   ,    ,   ,             .      .







     .         ,   ,     ,     ,  .      .  ,   ,     ,      .   ,     Review,      ,    [20 - Maximilian Novak, Daniel Defoe, Master of Fictions: His Life and Ideas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).].        ,        . , XVIII,       -.

          ,        ,        .      ,    .     ,     .          .               ;  , ,    .

       .      ,    .      .         .            ,          .

           ,    .          .  XVIII     ,     ,         [21 - ,  15.].            ,       ,     . ,   ,    ,      .       ,   .                      .       .







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  ,   , , ,    . ,        .    -     ,  ,       .   ,        ,     ,      .

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 1

  





 1

 



 I,    ,     1493 1519,      .     ,    ,             .     ,        ,       ,   .

   , ,      .       ,        .      .       ,    [22 - Larry Silver, Marketing Maximilian: The Visual Ideology of a Holy Roman Emperor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008).].  1490    ,         :      .

        .   ,   III,        ;              ,       .            ,             .      ,       .  , 1490       ,         [23 - Wolfgang Behringer, Thurn und Taxis: Die Geschichte ihrer Post und ihrer Unternehmen (Munich: Piper, 1990); idem,Im Zeichen des Merkur: ReichspostundKommunikationsrevolution in der Fruhen Neuzeit (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003).].

    , ,       Maestri dei Corrieri.          .    ,             .

    :             ,   180   . ʠ1505          ,  ,         .

      ,     .     ,        .            ,       ,      .

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1.1.    .     ,        



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    ,       ,          .           ,            .           ,     .            ,           [24 - A.M. Ramsay, A Roman Postal Service under the Republic, Journal of Roman Studies, 10 (1920), pp. 7986.].       .

       (       . . .)   ,       .  ,        .     ,      ,       .

           . ,        ,     ,      ,     .     ,    ,     .         .  , ,       ,         ,  ,    .

          .     ,       -   ,    ,     .          .

 ,      ,   ,     .       ,       ,       .

 1973      ,       .       ,   ,     .        .            , -      [25 - Alan K. Bowman, Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier: Vindolanda and its People, 2nd edn (London: British Museum, 2003); Anthony Birley, Garrison Life at Vindolanda (Stroud: History Press, 2007).].

 ,   ,        .        ,          .  ,    ,     .          , ,  ,    .  ,  ,     ,   . ,     ,      ,           .






1.2.     .      



           .       ,  .  ,       ,      .    ,          [26 - Alan K. Bowman and Greg Woolf, Literacy and Power in the Ancient World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Greg Woolf, Monumental Writing and the Expansion of Roman Society in the Early Empire, Journal of Roman Studies, 86 (1996), pp. 2239.].        ,       ,       .

, ,     .      ,                 .

    ,       XVI     .  ,  ,             ,     .




 


       .              .        ,        .           ,         ,    [27 - M. T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England 10661307 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1979).].     ,       .       ,     XI XII,      ,      , ,   , ,    [28 -  , . 261.].         ,         .        ,  ,      ,      .       ,       ,   ,     ,       ,     .           ,  ,  ,  ,     .    ,      .         ,      .

     ,   ,         . ,             .            .       ;              VI.   11461147         .      ,     .

   XII   ,      .    ,        .                ,       ( )  ,  [29 - Jurg Zulliger, Ohne Kommunikation wurde Chaos herrschen: Zur Bedeutung von Informationsaustauch, Briefverkehr und Boten bei Bernhard von Clairvaux, Archiv fur Kulturgeschichte, 78 (1996), pp. 251-76.].        ,      ,   .       .     ,     ,    ,      .       ,        .  ,         ,        ,  ,    .

 ,    ,     ,   .        ,   .     ,   ,          .   ,     ,    ,        .   -      ,    ,    ,     .      ,   ,     ,        ,        .         .  ,       ,  .







    :  .                -.         ,  ,  ,       .    ,     ,    ,     ,    ,     ,    ,   [30 - Chris Given-Wilson, Chronicles: The Writing of History in Medieval England (London: Hambledon, 2004), p. 21.].

      . ,       :          .  ,   ,       ,     .       ,      ,     ,      .   ,  ,  ,  . ,             1325,    ,   ,       ,          ,       [31 -  , . 13.].  ,  ,  , ,             .

       , ,   ,    .            .      - ,    :  ,    (ut fertur; ut dicebatur).       ,       . ,   ,    .          :     ,           .       ,     .   ,              .        ,     ,        .      ,  ,        .




 


      .       ,       ,   ,       . ,       ,       ,    ,  ,   ,  .            .           .

          .       XI  XIII.            ,       .     -,  -   ,            ,    .      ,       1291         .

,     ,     ,                 . ʠXIV                   ( ,    )[32 - J. K. Hyde, Italian Pilgrim Literature in the Late Middle Ages, in his Literacy and its Uses: Studies on Late Medieval Italy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 136-61.].   ,          ,        ,   .           ,              .

  ,    ,  , ,     .  ,         ,        .     XI,       ,     [33 - Sophia Menache, The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 116.].    ,    .              .      XIV XV        ,       .      ,         (Chansons de geste),   ,    .

       .         XVI ,      ,     ,   ,        [34 - Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, Wonders and the Order of Nature, 11501750 (New York: Zone, 2001).].

     , ,   .       .     ,    ,                     .        ,      ,   [35 - Hyde, Ethnographers in Search of an Audience, in his Literacy and its Uses, pp. 162216.].




  


     ,     .    ,   , . ,              ,  60 .        ,    ,      :         , , ,        ,    .

              .             ,      ,  -    [36 - Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Medieval Religion (London: Faber, 1975), p. 257; Debra Birch, Jacques de Vitry and the Ideology of Pilgrimage, in J. Stopford (ed.), Pilgrimage Explored (Woodbridge: York Medieval Press, 1999).].

        .      ,     ,      .      ,   ,    ,  [37 - Dianna Webb, Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in the Medieval West (London: I. B. Tauris, 2001); Sumption, Pilgrimage.].      --,     -.  , --     ,    .      ,         ,       .   ,   ,        ,          32 000          1440[38 - Albert Kapr, Johann Gutenberg: The Man and his Invention (London: Scolar Press, 1996), pp. 71-5.].        (          ), , ,             : .

            , ,    [39 - Debra Birch, Pilgrimage to Rome in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge: Boydell, 1998).].   ,               .    VIII    ,   1300     .     ,  ,   ,      .  ,          ,      [40 - Peter Spufford, Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), p. 23.].

              ,     .           .            ,         ,        .              .  ,          ,  ,    .      ,       .  ,   ,   ,     .     ,    .             ,        .   ,  ,    [41 -         5.].






1.3.      .  ,    ,     ,  ,   , , ,  ,  



           .    1309 1376               ,     V   .    ,            ,      ,   .      .   XIV       :     ,      [42 - Yves Renouard, Comment les papes dAvignon expediaient leur courrier, Revue historique, 180 (1937), pp. 1-29; idem, The Avignon Papacy, 13051403 (London: Faber, 1970); Anne-Marie Hayez, Les courriers des papes dAvignon sous Innocent VI et Urbain V (13521370), in La circulation des nouvelles au moyen age (Paris: Sorbonne, 1994), pp. 3746.].

       ,   .  XIV     .     ,     ,     .           .     ,   ,         .        .      ,       .    XIV          [43 - Renouard, Les papes dAvignon, pp. 20-3.].

,      ,          .       XIV      ,      , ,  ,   ,        .    -,    ,    :             .      .

              ,       .        ,      ,       .      ;   , ,       ,      ,    ,      [44 - ,   ,  3  1321,     18 .   ,  6  1321.,  31 .      1360.     . Renouard, Les papes dAvignon, p. 28.].




 


  ,     ,      :  .      .   ,   ,     .           .            ,       .

      .   ,    ,    ,       ,       .          ,  1158; XV        .          ;         .        [45 - Suzanne Budelot, Messageries universitaires et messageries royales (Paris: Domat, 1934).],   1300,         [46 - Hilde de Rodder-Symoens (ed.), A History of the University in Europe. Volume I: Universities in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 114.].          ,     .     ,      .         ,   XIV       .        .   , ,  1610     IV,       :           .

   ,   ,  ,     ,       .             .       ,     .            .                  [47 - C. H. Haskins, The Lives of Mediaeval Students as Illustrated in their Letters, in his Studies in Mediaeval Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1929), pp. 1-35.].        ,  ,     ,        .     -     ,      [48 - Alain Boureau, The Letter-Writing Norm, a Mediaeval Invention, in Roger Chartier (ed.), Correspondence: Models of Letter-Writing from the Middle Ages to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), pp. 2458.].       :  ,       ,       .      ,   1220:



 ,       ,       ,        ,      ,    .  :    ,        ,       .                ,     ,   [49 - Haskins, Lives of Medieval Students, p. 10.].


      ,          .   , ,    ,  :



  ,      ,   ,   .    ,      ,       ,          .           ,                [50 - Ibid., pp. 1516.].


   ,  ,           ,     ,    ,  .       ,  (-) ,   ,       . , ,    ,    [51 - ,  15.].          ,        .




 


       .       .       ,   -     .           .            .          ,    .

 ,      , .     I           1100  1135[52 - Philip O. Beale, A History of the Post in England from the Romans to the Stuarts (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), p. 22.].    ,             .      ,     XIX.  -,          ,  ,    .      ,       ,    . ʠXIV         [53 - Ibid., pp. 24-7.].              ,   .

 ,  ,    .      .   ,         .             ;       .        .          ,          .      II (12911327)  ,          .          [54 - J. K. Hyde, The Role of Diplomatic Correspondence and Reporting, in his Literacy and its Uses, pp. 217-59, here pp. 224-6.].       ,      , ,         .        .     ,       ,   .

       ,    ,     ,     .         ,      II:    ,    ,     ,  [55 -  , . 244.].                  .   ,      ,    [56 - ,  5.].

       ,           .        ,      .      .     1327  19      ,   ,        .        1343  13     .   ,       . ,  ,   II,        (13051306).        ,        [57 - Beale, History of the Post, pp. 3039.].

  ,       .        .      ,      ,   ,        .  XIV        .  - ,     .

            ,     ,  ,    .    ,      :



 ,            ,    ,       .     .          ,      .       ,  , , , , , ,   ,    ,                 .       ,    ,       [58 - Given-Wilson, Chronicles, p. 109.].


              . ,   ,                . ʠXIV         . ,   ,     ,    ,        Scriveners Company[59 - Beale, History of the Post, pp. 84-6.].




 


 1350      .   ,         ,       .        .        , , .

    ,    ,       .         ,         [60 - La circulation des nouvelles.].       ,       ,        .       .         IV 6  1483,         .         9 [61 - C. A. J. Armstrong, Some Examples of the Distribution and Speed of News in England at the Time of the Wars of the Roses, in his England, France and Burgundy in the Fifteenth Century (London: Hambledon, 1983), pp. 97-122.].

       ,     ,    .      (1471),    ,    ,   ,         .          ,     .                 .       ,   ,     .

           .    - (1455),  (1461)  (1471)        .     ,     [62 - Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 100; James Gairdner (ed.), Three Fifteenth-Century Chronicles (London: Camden Society, 1880), pp. 156 ff.].           .              ,     XVII[63 - ,  4.].

        .            ,  , 1419.       ,       ,   , ,   ,     [64 - B. Guenee, Les campagnes de lettres qui ont suivi le meurtre de Jean sans Peur, duc de Bourgogne (septembre 1419-fevrier 1420), Annuaire-Bulletin de la Societe de lHistoire de France (1993), pp. 4565.].              ,         ,   -     [65 - Craig Taylor, War, Propaganda and Diplomacy in Fifteenth-Century France and England, in Christopher Allmand (ed.), War, Government and Power in Late Medieval France (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000), pp. 7091.].

       ,   -     .        ,     ,     .      ,         ,         .     ,  , ,          ,   [66 - Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 99.].  ,    IV           .

    , ,                ,              .       XV   .         III,  1443          .        ,     XI (  14611483).  ,           .              .  ,          .             ,      [67 - Budelot, Messageries universitaires et messageries royales; E. John B. Allen, The Royal Posts of France in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Postal History Journal, 15 (January 1971).].      ,          .             .  ,      ,     .           .         ,       .        ,         .

      IV       .       -     ,           .  1482    ,          .    ,         [68 - Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 107.].  ,      .

        ,       .    XI    ,     . Ƞ,     :        ,       ,  ,        .     XVI        ,      .






 1.    XVI



         ,       .  1505       12 000 .           . ,      :  ,    ,        .

    V 1519        .    1516        .        ,        .               ,       XVII.       ,         .    ,   ,      ,        .

           .   , ,     ,          .   ,        XII        [69 - Menache, Vox Dei.].         .      : ,   ,   ,    ,       .         ,     ,    1471     ,          ,  [70 - Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 101.].         ,   ,        .                .        ,    -  .

      -  , ,  ,  .     ,   ,        .     ,     .                ,        .




 2

 



       ,  ,         .    1200 1500        ,    ,  , ,  .   ,              ,       . ,       .     ,       .       , ,     .

     ,       ,  .  XIII                    .         .    ,       ,    ,     . ,           .

   .    ,    ,    .       .     ,   ,         .    ,            . Ѡ1383  1394     , ,  [71 - Iris Origo, The Merchant of Prato: Francesco di Marco Datini (London: Jonathan Cape, 1957), p. 90.].          ,     ,    1410,   15 000 ,        ,    ,    ,    126 000   [72 -  ,          ,      ,     .      .].    (       )        .

    ,         ,     , ,   :     ,  .          . ,    ,    .   ,        ,      ,    .      .          ,           .

      XII.         ,  . ,    ,   .            ,    ,        .       ,     . ʠXIII      .  -    ,   : ,    .   ,    ,           ,    ,    .    XVIII     ,     .     XIV            .               .







        ,   ,        .       .       ,      ,        ,     ,  .      ,     .            .

      1277    [73 - David Nicholas, Medieval Flanders (London: Longman, 1992). James M. Murray, Bruges, Cradle of Capitalism, 12801390 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).].          .    .            ,      [74 - Edwin S. Hunt, The Medieval Super-Companies: A Study of the Peruzzi Company of Florence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).].      ,      .           ,      .           . ʠXIV  ,  ,    .        [75 - Raymond de Roover, Money, Banking and Credit in Medieval Bruges (Cambridge, MA: 1948).].

    . ,          ,      .     ,         XII.          ,         .        ʸ    ,    ,        [76 - Gilles le Bouvier, Le livre de la description des pays (Paris: Leroux, 1908), pp.157216.].

  ,    ,   .         .           .  1260            ,     .        .           .    ,     .           [77 - Peter Spufford, Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), pp. 143-52.].      , XIV XV          , -      .    , --  ,    .      .     ,        .          ,  ,    .       ,     .        1431     13  Maistro Piero dela Memoria  ,     [78 - Frederic C. Lane, Andrea Barbarigo, Merchant of Venice, 14181449 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1944), p. 20.].

 XIV        .     ,        ,         .  1357    ,     .           .       :         ʸ;      .   scarzelle Genovesi         [79 - Spufford, Power and Profit, pp. 25-8.].   ,              .         .             .     ,        ,    . ,       XV,    ,      .

,      .  1420-              ,        ,        (     )    .     ,        ,  ,  ,       ,        [80 - Lane, Andrea Barbarigo, pp. 199200.       ,    ,      .].       1400     .         320 000  .                     .         -.          :           [81 - Federigo Melis, Intensita e regolarita nella diffusione dellinformazione economica generale nel Mediterraneo e in Occidente alla fine del Medioevo, in Melanges en lhonneur de Fernand Braudel, 2 vols (Toulouse: Privat, 1973), I, 389424. Spufford, Power and Profit, p. 27.].

     .   ,         ,    ,            .     .      2  1127        .  1316          ,  XXII,      .       II           ,    [82 - Philip O. Beale, A History of the Post in England from the Romans to the Stuarts (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), p. 33.].  1497         ,       ,        [83 - C. A. J. Armstrong, England, France and Burgundy in the Fifteenth Century (London: Hambledon, 1983), pp. 97-122, here p. 109.].

      .  ,      1464,       ,       [84 - A. Grunzweig, Correspondence de la filiale de Bruges de Medici (Brussels: Lamertin, 1931), I, 130-45.].     ,        .     -,          . ,    ,     ,        ,   . ,        ,     [85 - ,  5.].           ( ).          .  -                    IV.                    [86 - Hunt, Medieval Super-Companies, p. 73.].               ,   - [87 -      ,      , A History of the Post in England, p.160.].          ,      [88 - E. John B. Allen, Post and Courier Service in the Diplomacy of Early Modern Europe, vol. 3 (The Hague: Nijhoff, International Archive of the History of Ideas, 1972).].






2.1.   .              



        , ,      ,      .           30      .      20  40   ,          13 .     ,      [89 - Richard Goldthwaite, The Economy of Renaissance Florence, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press), p. 94.].       , ,   ,        .         .     ,  ,   ,   .




  


          XIV  XV.         ,     .     ,       ,         ,  .         .       ,        ,    .          ,       .

       .  1340-      ,                .       III             .    ,  ,        .   ,     ,      .  1395    ,       II     VI  .       II    ,      . -  ,   ,     .      ,     ,              ,      [90 - Origo, Datini, pp. 85-6.].      ,    .    ,             ,     ,              :      ,     ,       .    ,    ,   [91 -  , . 86.].    .       .       .           ,    .              - :



   .    ,  ,   ,           .        ,   .     ,     .       .        ,      [92 - Robert S. Lopez and Irving W. Raymond, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955), no. 193; Gunnar Dahl, Trade, Trust and Networks: Commercial Cultures in Late Medieval Italy (Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 1998), p. 82.].

   .        ,  ,               ,  ,     .        ,      ,     ,     [93 - Lopez and Raymond, Medieval Trade, no. 194; Dahl, Trade, p. 82.].


,  ,          :



,         ,  ,   ;      , ,  ,  ![94 - Dahl, Trade, p. 83.]


  , ,    ,    .          ,        [95 - Gertrude R. B. Richards (ed.), Florentine Merchants in the Age of the Medici: Letters and Documents from the Selfridge Collection of Medici Manuscripts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1932), p. 109; Dahl, Trade, p. 83.].      .    ,           ,       ,   ,  ,      .       ,      .    ,    ,   ,   .            ,   .

   ,  ,       .       ,  ,   .    ,    .         ,        .

            .     , ,  .         .     ,          .

      .



          ,          XIV,  ,      ,     .           -   ,      ,    ,     ,     .    ,     [96 - Paolo da Certaldo, Libro di buoni costumi, ed. Alfredo Schiaffini (Florence, 1946), pp. 149-50.].


  ,          ,  [97 - Goldthwaite, Economy of Renaissance Florence, p. 95.].     , ,   ,    .  ,   ,       ,      ,        .       ,  ,   ,   ,    ,        . ,    ,     XVI,  ,         [98 - Theodor Gustav Werner, Das kaufmannische Nachrichtenwesen im spaten Mittelalter und in der fruhen Neuzeit und sein Einfluss auf dieEntstehung der handschriftlichen Zeitung, Scripta Mercaturae (1975), pp. 3-51.].     .      ,     .  ,      ,       ,     ,      .      ,     ,      -    .            ,   .

   ,     . ,     ,       ?    ,             .     .    ,  -   .    ,      1392,     ,     ,     ,        .     -,      ,   [99 - Goldthwaite, Economy of Renaissance Florence, p. 94.]. ,         .  1419                  ,   .   ,   ,    , ,   -     ,   :



     ,      , ,  ,   ,   , .     ,   .      , , ,       . , ,       []  ,     [100 - George Christ, A Newsletter in 1419? Antonio Morosinis Chronicle in the Light of Commercial Correspondence between Venice and Alexandria, Mediterranean Historical Review, 20 (2005), pp. 3566, here pp. 41-2.].





2.2.  .  .        ,       



         ,       .    ,    ,    ,    .

     ,  .       ,    ,   .     ,       ,   뻠     [101 - Richards, Florentine Merchants, 263; Dahl, Trade, p. 116.].      .       (,       ).   ,             .    ,      ,      ,    ,            [102 - Dahl, Trade, p. 104. They were, however, permitted to play chess, to while away the long evenings.].    ,     ,     .    , , ,  ,  ,        ,          ,    ,    ,    .        ,    .       ,  [103 - Dahl, Trade, p. 119.]




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      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


Weekly Review of the Affairs of France (17 February 1704). Defoes Review (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2003-11). William L. Payne, The Best of Defoes Review: An Anthology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951).




2


Review (fasc. edn, New York, 1938), viii, 708, book 21. Quoted Harold Love, The Culture and Commerce of Texts (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998), p. 3. See now also Dror Wahrman, Mr. Colliers Letter Rack: A Tale of Art and Illusion at the Threshold of the Modern Information Age (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 1929.




3


         :   VI,  2,  IV,  4;   VI,  3,  II,  1;  III,  IV,  2  4;  ,  V,  2;  ,  1,  2;  ,  1,  1; ,  IV,  7;  ,  1,  2;  ,  1,  2; ,  1,  7.    .




4


Claude Holyband, The French Littelton (London: Richard Field, 1593). Below, Chapter 6.




5


The historie of Cambria, now called Wales (1584), sig. vr.        .




6


Jurg Zulliger, Ohne Kommunikation wurde Chaos herrschen. Zur Bedeutung von Informationsaustauch, Briefverkehr und Boten bei Bernhard von Clairvaux, Archiv fur Kulturgeschichte, 78 (1996), pp. 251-76. ,  1.




7


,  2.




8


,  7.




9


Nate Silver, The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail but Some Dont (New York: Penguin, 2012).




10


Ulinka Rublack, The Crimes of Women in Early Modern Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 1619.




11


Matthew Lundin, Paper Memory: A Sixteenth-Century Townsman Writes his World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).




12


 , . 243.




13


,  5.




14


Andrew Pettegree, The Book in the Renaissance (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2010).




15


,  4.




16


,  7.




17


Allyson Creasman, Censorship and Civic Order in Reformation Germany, 15171648 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2012).




18


Jan Bloemendal, Peter G. F. Eversmann and Else Strietman (eds), Drama, Performance and Debate: Theatre and Public Opinion in the Early Modern Period (Leiden: Brill, 2013);      12.




19


- publier. . Kate van Orden, Cheap Print and Street Song Following the Saint Bartholomews Massacres of 1572, in van Orden (ed.), Music and the Cultures of Print (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000), pp. 271323.




20


Maximilian Novak, Daniel Defoe, Master of Fictions: His Life and Ideas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).




21


,  15.




22


Larry Silver, Marketing Maximilian: The Visual Ideology of a Holy Roman Emperor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008).




23


Wolfgang Behringer, Thurn und Taxis: Die Geschichte ihrer Post und ihrer Unternehmen (Munich: Piper, 1990); idem,Im Zeichen des Merkur: ReichspostundKommunikationsrevolution in der Fruhen Neuzeit (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003).




24


A.M. Ramsay, A Roman Postal Service under the Republic, Journal of Roman Studies, 10 (1920), pp. 7986.




25


Alan K. Bowman, Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier: Vindolanda and its People, 2nd edn (London: British Museum, 2003); Anthony Birley, Garrison Life at Vindolanda (Stroud: History Press, 2007).




26


Alan K. Bowman and Greg Woolf, Literacy and Power in the Ancient World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Greg Woolf, Monumental Writing and the Expansion of Roman Society in the Early Empire, Journal of Roman Studies, 86 (1996), pp. 2239.




27


M. T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England 10661307 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1979).




28


 , . 261.




29


Jurg Zulliger, Ohne Kommunikation wurde Chaos herrschen: Zur Bedeutung von Informationsaustauch, Briefverkehr und Boten bei Bernhard von Clairvaux, Archiv fur Kulturgeschichte, 78 (1996), pp. 251-76.




30


Chris Given-Wilson, Chronicles: The Writing of History in Medieval England (London: Hambledon, 2004), p. 21.




31


 , . 13.




32


J. K. Hyde, Italian Pilgrim Literature in the Late Middle Ages, in his Literacy and its Uses: Studies on Late Medieval Italy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 136-61.




33


Sophia Menache, The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 116.




34


Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, Wonders and the Order of Nature, 11501750 (New York: Zone, 2001).




35


Hyde, Ethnographers in Search of an Audience, in his Literacy and its Uses, pp. 162216.




36


Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Medieval Religion (London: Faber, 1975), p. 257; Debra Birch, Jacques de Vitry and the Ideology of Pilgrimage, in J. Stopford (ed.), Pilgrimage Explored (Woodbridge: York Medieval Press, 1999).




37


Dianna Webb, Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in the Medieval West (London: I. B. Tauris, 2001); Sumption, Pilgrimage.




38


Albert Kapr, Johann Gutenberg: The Man and his Invention (London: Scolar Press, 1996), pp. 71-5.




39


Debra Birch, Pilgrimage to Rome in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge: Boydell, 1998).




40


Peter Spufford, Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), p. 23.




41


        5.




42


Yves Renouard, Comment les papes dAvignon expediaient leur courrier, Revue historique, 180 (1937), pp. 1-29; idem, The Avignon Papacy, 13051403 (London: Faber, 1970); Anne-Marie Hayez, Les courriers des papes dAvignon sous Innocent VI et Urbain V (13521370), in La circulation des nouvelles au moyen age (Paris: Sorbonne, 1994), pp. 3746.




43


Renouard, Les papes dAvignon, pp. 20-3.




44


,   ,  3  1321,     18 .   ,  6  1321.,  31 .      1360.     . Renouard, Les papes dAvignon, p. 28.




45


Suzanne Budelot, Messageries universitaires et messageries royales (Paris: Domat, 1934).




46


Hilde de Rodder-Symoens (ed.), A History of the University in Europe. Volume I: Universities in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 114.




47


C. H. Haskins, The Lives of Mediaeval Students as Illustrated in their Letters, in his Studies in Mediaeval Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1929), pp. 1-35.




48


Alain Boureau, The Letter-Writing Norm, a Mediaeval Invention, in Roger Chartier (ed.), Correspondence: Models of Letter-Writing from the Middle Ages to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), pp. 2458.




49


Haskins, Lives of Medieval Students, p. 10.




50


Ibid., pp. 1516.




51


,  15.




52


Philip O. Beale, A History of the Post in England from the Romans to the Stuarts (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), p. 22.




53


Ibid., pp. 24-7.




54


J. K. Hyde, The Role of Diplomatic Correspondence and Reporting, in his Literacy and its Uses, pp. 217-59, here pp. 224-6.




55


 , . 244.




56


,  5.




57


Beale, History of the Post, pp. 3039.




58


Given-Wilson, Chronicles, p. 109.




59


Beale, History of the Post, pp. 84-6.




60


La circulation des nouvelles.




61


C. A. J. Armstrong, Some Examples of the Distribution and Speed of News in England at the Time of the Wars of the Roses, in his England, France and Burgundy in the Fifteenth Century (London: Hambledon, 1983), pp. 97-122.




62


Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 100; James Gairdner (ed.), Three Fifteenth-Century Chronicles (London: Camden Society, 1880), pp. 156 ff.




63


,  4.




64


B. Guenee, Les campagnes de lettres qui ont suivi le meurtre de Jean sans Peur, duc de Bourgogne (septembre 1419-fevrier 1420), Annuaire-Bulletin de la Societe de lHistoire de France (1993), pp. 4565.




65


Craig Taylor, War, Propaganda and Diplomacy in Fifteenth-Century France and England, in Christopher Allmand (ed.), War, Government and Power in Late Medieval France (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000), pp. 7091.




66


Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 99.




67


Budelot, Messageries universitaires et messageries royales; E. John B. Allen, The Royal Posts of France in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Postal History Journal, 15 (January 1971).




68


Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 107.




69


Menache, Vox Dei.




70


Armstrong, Some Examples, p. 101.




71


Iris Origo, The Merchant of Prato: Francesco di Marco Datini (London: Jonathan Cape, 1957), p. 90.




72


 ,          ,      ,     .      .




73


David Nicholas, Medieval Flanders (London: Longman, 1992). James M. Murray, Bruges, Cradle of Capitalism, 12801390 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).




74


Edwin S. Hunt, The Medieval Super-Companies: A Study of the Peruzzi Company of Florence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).




75


Raymond de Roover, Money, Banking and Credit in Medieval Bruges (Cambridge, MA: 1948).




76


Gilles le Bouvier, Le livre de la description des pays (Paris: Leroux, 1908), pp.157216.




77


Peter Spufford, Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), pp. 143-52.




78


Frederic C. Lane, Andrea Barbarigo, Merchant of Venice, 14181449 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1944), p. 20.




79


Spufford, Power and Profit, pp. 25-8.




80


Lane, Andrea Barbarigo, pp. 199200.       ,    ,      .




81


Federigo Melis, Intensita e regolarita nella diffusione dellinformazione economica generale nel Mediterraneo e in Occidente alla fine del Medioevo, in Melanges en lhonneur de Fernand Braudel, 2 vols (Toulouse: Privat, 1973), I, 389424. Spufford, Power and Profit, p. 27.




82


Philip O. Beale, A History of the Post in England from the Romans to the Stuarts (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), p. 33.




83


C. A. J. Armstrong, England, France and Burgundy in the Fifteenth Century (London: Hambledon, 1983), pp. 97-122, here p. 109.




84


A. Grunzweig, Correspondence de la filiale de Bruges de Medici (Brussels: Lamertin, 1931), I, 130-45.




85


,  5.




86


Hunt, Medieval Super-Companies, p. 73.




87


     ,      , A History of the Post in England, p.160.




88


E. John B. Allen, Post and Courier Service in the Diplomacy of Early Modern Europe, vol. 3 (The Hague: Nijhoff, International Archive of the History of Ideas, 1972).




89


Richard Goldthwaite, The Economy of Renaissance Florence, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press), p. 94.




90


Origo, Datini, pp. 85-6.




91


 , . 86.




92


Robert S. Lopez and Irving W. Raymond, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955), no. 193; Gunnar Dahl, Trade, Trust and Networks: Commercial Cultures in Late Medieval Italy (Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 1998), p. 82.




93


Lopez and Raymond, Medieval Trade, no. 194; Dahl, Trade, p. 82.




94


Dahl, Trade, p. 83.




95


Gertrude R. B. Richards (ed.), Florentine Merchants in the Age of the Medici: Letters and Documents from the Selfridge Collection of Medici Manuscripts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1932), p. 109; Dahl, Trade, p. 83.




96


Paolo da Certaldo, Libro di buoni costumi, ed. Alfredo Schiaffini (Florence, 1946), pp. 149-50.




97


Goldthwaite, Economy of Renaissance Florence, p. 95.




98


Theodor Gustav Werner, Das kaufmannische Nachrichtenwesen im spaten Mittelalter und in der fruhen Neuzeit und sein Einfluss auf dieEntstehung der handschriftlichen Zeitung, Scripta Mercaturae (1975), pp. 3-51.




99


Goldthwaite, Economy of Renaissance Florence, p. 94.




100


George Christ, A Newsletter in 1419? Antonio Morosinis Chronicle in the Light of Commercial Correspondence between Venice and Alexandria, Mediterranean Historical Review, 20 (2005), pp. 3566, here pp. 41-2.




101


Richards, Florentine Merchants, 263; Dahl, Trade, p. 116.




102


Dahl, Trade, p. 104. They were, however, permitted to play chess, to while away the long evenings.




103


Dahl, Trade, p. 119.


