 .         
 


          . Apple, McDonalds, IKEA              .        ,            .  ,     80/20,      ,    ,  ,           .





 

 .         



  .,    , 2017

 .   ݻ, 2017


* * *




  


      ,        .  ,   ,     ,     .

 ,  ,  ,           .       .             , ,      , .      ,          .   XIX      :     ,       . ,  ,     .  ,    ,   ,   .



   ,     ,             .      ,             .


  ,                 .

           .     ,   -   ,    ,   :   .

,  ,          ( BCG).     .          .

       .

  軠        .

       .

 軠       .

  :

    ,          ,      ( 10%       );

                  ;

  12%     ,         100%             ( 100%       ,      ).           ;

    ,     ,         ,        [1 - Richard Koch (2008). The Star Principle: How It Can Make You Rich, London: Piatkus.].

     ,     [2 - Sunday Times Rich List 2015, Sunday Times Magazine, 26 April 2015, P. 72: Richard Koch 180m.].   23      16 ,     ,      .     ,        .           20%         [3 -   ( . venture  )   ,        .       .  . .].

   ?     .           ,    .

   .   ,     .     ,             .

,   -  ,   ,   ?           .

        (    )     OC&C Strategy Consultants    . ,   .

     ,      ,   .   ,        ,  .




  


    ,      .             .  ,      ,   ,      ,    .        ,  ,         .

            ,         (   )       .         80/20.

,  ,    ,    , , ,  ,    .



 - ,       ,   ,   ,       -     .


        ,   ,   80/20    .       ,       .

,    ,          .   ,     ,    .          ,       ,  ,     .        .       ,          .

               .     .         ,            .    .




 !


    ()         ,    .    ? ,          .

       ,    Boston Consulting Group (BCG).  -      .  :   ,   ,       .     ,   .       ,       ,             .  ,       ,         .

  ,    ,     BCG, ,          ,        .  ,       ,  ,    ,    ,    .      ,       .

     BCG.         ,   ,         ,        MBA.  ,        ,                     ,     .

     ,  BCG               .  ,         , BCG                     .

 BCG  ?  .            ,    ,   .          ,   ,     BCG,            .

      ?     ,      ,   ,          .     ,  ,    .              .



    ?  www. Simplify.fm          .


    ,    , ,       ( ),      .   ,      :

         ;

     ,        .

 , !

         ,         ,      80/20    .  ,    ,        .     ,  ,    .


 

     ,       .     .              .             .

    ,     .      XX         .

 ,           ,      .    ,       ,       ,  ,               .              .

          (,    , ,    ),  ,        :

  ;

  ;

     ;

  ;

  ;

  ;

  ;

 .  ;

  ;

     ;

  ;

  ;

  ;

  ;

  ;

  ;

     ;

  ;

  ;

     .

    ,       ,        ( ,      ).

    .        . ,           һ,    :

               ,       .   ,    .   ,    ,      , ,     .

     :

      :        ,    ,     ,           ,   -    .     1954     ,    -  ,     ,    [4 - Ray Kroc (1977). Grinding It Out: The Making of McDonalds, Chicago: Contemporary Books, P. 7071.].

    McDonald's   KISS   : Keep It Simple, Stupid[5 -  , !].

     :    ,  ,       :    .  [6 - Walter Isaacson (2011). Steve Jobs, New York: Simon & Schuster, . 126.].

    ,    ,  ,      ,     .       -[7 -  , . 564.].

  ,    Apple,   iPod,       ,           ,     .  ,      .       ,       ,         ,    [8 - Leander Kahney (2008/2009) Inside Steves Brain, London: Atlantic Books, . 96.].

   ,     ,   ,    ,          ,    ,      .    (   )     .

     !     (  , ,  )        ,    .      !

       .    ,  ,  -       . ,    ,  ,  ,              .


 

           . ,      ,   ,    -  .       ,    ,       ,      .      .

    .

   .             .       90%    .       ,     , ,     .

,         ,  ,      . ,    ,      ,       .                    .    ,    5090%      ,  ,     -       .          !

 ,   ,            .       .   , , ,   .     80  90%    ,         .       ,   McDonald's   .

          ,            .

,     ,     ,           .         ,          .        ,       ,       -.      . ,   ,    ,        .



  :             : www.simplify.fm.


   ,     ,    ,     .     ,         ,   iPad (    Apple  ),  Vespa,  Google      Uber.  ,   ,  ,   .

    ,           . ,       iPad.    ,               .           , , , ,         ,  / .    ,       .

 ,      ,      ,     .

     (      )        ,     4,    .        .       .

,       (    ),     ,     1,           .

 2       ,           ,     .

 3      ?            ,       .   www.SIMPLIFYforCEOs.com         ,         .

 4      ,  .             OC&C.             .     ,            (  )   .

-   !




[ 1]

 



       ,     .        ,      ,      .

-         .     -          ?. ,       .  Apple, Google, eBay, Amazon.com.   ,       Uber.     ,   , , Ford  McDonald's.  ,       ,           .       ,       .




[ 1]

,   


       .

 

 ?       ,     ,   ,          -.      ,             .



 45          ,   .              XX :        .




  :              : www.simplify.fm.


        :

  ,         .        .        .

     .      .      . ,    ,        [9 - Ford. . ., . 64.].

        .          ,    ,    ,        .           .      :   ,     ,       . ,     ,             .

         1908 ,       .   ,      ,  ,       ,  [10 -  , . 67.].  ,         ,    .     .         ,     .     ,   :

    .    ,     ,   ,        .        .     .        ,   ,       ,      [11 -  , . 73.].



  ,            ,         ,      ,    ,   [12 -  , . 6768.].


     .    ,    .   ,      ,       .        .  19051906     ,   1000,   2000 .      1599 .           :       600 ,       750,     ,   .   8423       ,       [13 -  , . 58.].

,           ,        ,       ?               :

    1909    -  ,        ,    һ,        [14 -  , . 72.]

       .       :  , ,     .          ,       .   ,    .   ,    ,      , ,     [15 -  , . 69.].

,   ,          ,      .

 ,      ,     . ,      ,   .          ,     .     :       .        ,  ,        .    ,    .      .     ,      [16 -  , . 66.].         170?000,          .        (     ),    ,   .

        .          .       (  ,       )        25   -   .    ,   1  1910 ,   :  1908  1911      1908   4110,             .  ,        [17 -  , . 74.].

             ,        ,   ,       .       .            .    1913 ,              .   ,        ,    .

       һ   1914   550 ,      248307 .  1917        360 ,     785432 .  1920    1, 25    һ.    1909      63%,     (      20%    ).           .



    19051906  (     )  1920    781 .    һ      .               . 


 1920      56%,      ,       General Motors,     .   Ford          (   ),     (  ) .



      ,       .     3540%       700 . 


         :           .          .



     ,      ,    .      .            .


       .     ,     .    ,         ,    .        (      ,        )      .

     . ,        .         .           ,        .              .

        ,                    ,   .      һ    ,      .          ,       .

  ,           [18 -  , . 68.].       ,        .    :    .        ( , ,     ),       .             .

        ,      .    ,     ,   ,     ,   .




    ,   Forbes   2008   188   (      ).         .  ,        ,     ,            .   һ     ,   ,    ,     ,   .

  Ford Motor   ,               .   110 ,      59  .     ,    1906 ,   10%[19 - .  15.].

       .

      ,          .

         (       ),      .




1.         ,     , ,  .

2.          50%.      ,             10%  .

3.   :

    ,       ;

   ,        ;

   ;

      ;

    ,    ;

     ,    ;

    ,       ;

  .

4.     ,       . ,  ,       ,      ,       .




[ 2]

  


    .

 

    ,  -     .     ,      .      .

    IKEA  ,   ,    . , - ,       ,    .      :      [20 - He Lives in a Bungalow, Flies EasyJet and Dries Out Three Times a Year. The Man who Founded IKEA and is Worth 15bn, Daily Mail, 14 April 2008, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-559487/He-lives-bungalow-flies-easyJet-dries-times-year  man-founded-IKEA-worth-pound-15bn.html.].  ,        .       ,       ,     .    .

IKEA     ,       .  1976      ,      [21 - Ingvar Kamprad (1976). The Testament of a Furniture Dealer, Delft, The Netherlands: Inter IKEA Systems BV.].                ,   . ,  IKEA   ; ,     ; ,      .



    IKEA  ,        ,         ,   .


,  1996  IKEA          ( 55 ).        ,         864 .        ,    ,      1280 .          ,       2024 ,        60%.

         IKEA.     ,             . ,       ,      .


 IKEA    ?

         .   ,    ,   ,   ,   :   ,   ,       . IKEA     .              .       ,         ,   . , -              .   -   !   ,     .

   ,    IKEA,      .        - ,       .         ,    ,   IKEA.  ?

 ,      ,  IKEA    .   ,   .  ,    .                  ,   IKEA   .          ,     .

   ,         .      ,         ,      .             ,    .

IKEA          ,     :

   .  IKEA   ,      ,         .       ;

     ,       ,            ;

     ,    ;

       ,        .          ,        .

 IKEA      ,  ,    ,    .        ,       (    ).

     .      IKEA     . IKEA    ,     ,        .         ,       ,  IKEA      . ,  ,    IKEA.

   IKEA             .         ( , ),     .        ,     ,      ,    .   IKEA                 (,    ).

    ,      .      -,               .



      ,   ,        ,      ,    .


  ,    .

             .       .

         .   ,      ,                ,     ,   .

        ,           .         ,        .      ,      :             .      ,       IKEA     .     .   -   ,       .     ,   ,     .


 IKEA   



IKEA   ,    .     ,       ?    ?


 :         ,     .    .  .

  IKEA   ,        .    IKEA,          ,      .      ,     :        .   ,   ,     .     ,   :  IKEA     ,      ,       .

IKEA        ,    .                         .          .

,  IKEA   .          ,      .      IKEA    .

 ,   IKEA .      - ,        .    ,   .         ,   .

     IKEA (    )      (     ,     ).          .     ,    ,  ,     :    IKEA  ,      .

-            ,          ,         .  .           ,      .      .         ,   . ,    ,   ,      , ,      .    ,       ,     .

    ( )  , IKEA      (  ) ,   . ,       IKEA    -,        .       ,    .       :



        ,    ,     .


    .       ,       ,      (     ) .  ,  IKEA    .

              ,   .       : ,    .    ,         .

      , ,       (     IKEA),   (     ,    ,   )        ,      .

       ,   ,       .     ,      ,         ,        ,       .       .

,  IKEA,        (  IKEA      )        ,     ,      ,         .    IKEA    .




 IKEA   -           .

 IKEA             29  .   IKEA             .

      2% IKEA   14.

 IKEA    ,      15%,     .      47  .




1. IKEA ,                 (      50  80%).

2.     ,      ,   ,  ,            ,     IKEA.    -       ,      50   ?

3. IKEA       ,      .      -    ,    ?

4.      IKEA   -   ,  ,       ,     .         ,         ?

5.     IKEA            ,    .      ,      -     IKEA   .  ,       ,     ,       .




[ 3]

  


   ,   ,  ,   .

  -

 ,     ( )   ,   .        ,    ,      .

   1954            -.                .           .               ,      .

            ,     .   .      ,    .    ,    .   ,      ,     ,      .

  ,   -   .             ,   :

,     ?

   , ?

.

  .      ,      .        .

      ,        ,  .         ,      .

  ,  ,   .   ,      [22 -   : Chris Zook and James Allen (2012). Repeatability: Building Enduring Businesses for a World of Constant Change, Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, P. 99100.].

       ,     .       ,     ,    ,    .

        ,        . ,  ,   .          .        ,      .      ,      ,         .      :        ,  .  :      ,          .  .

 ,   -    ,     .       1948 [23 -   ,    -     1940 .],  -      ,      .              .



       .         ,   , .       ,    .


     ,         .

 ,    ,  ,    ,      .        ,    .      ?

     ,       .     ,     ,         .    .



      ,             ,                    . 


       ,    ,  400    .          ,     McDonald's,      [24 - He Lives in a Bungalow. . .].

          :       ,        ,       ,             .

        , McDonald's      ,      .           ,    ,           .

   - McDonald's     ,        , ,    [25 - Kamprad. . .].

  ,  ,       .  ,   :          ,      .    ,     ,   ,          ,         .   ,            .    .  ,    -     - .       [26 -    Chip Heath and Dan Heath (2008). Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Take Hold and Others Come Unstuck, London: Arrow, P. 28.].

 ,         .        ,      .         ,    .     .

  .  ,      ,      

       ?        .            .      ,   ,    .        IKEA,        .



         :      .


          15 c.  [27 - Kroc. . ., . 68 ( ,  ).].

    (-,      IKEA):

1. :

  .    ,           ,   -    [28 - The Average McDonalds by the Numbers, Burger Business, 8 February 2012, www.burgerbusiness.com/?p=9385, retrieved 3 November 2012.];

        .

2. :

     ;

  ;

    .

    -[29 -        ,  Mcdonald's,    .].

3.  :

  ;

  .

            ,      ,    -.    ,     -      McDonald's.     ,   .       ,       ,       [30 - Kroc. . ., . 100.].

  ,       McDonald's.               ,   1961     ,    2,7   ( 21     ).

     McDonald's   .           ,    .     ,         ,               .



             ,       ,   ,     ,         ,  ,    .


            ,   .    ,    1955 ,         -           .   ,     ,  ,         ,      .

     ,       ,      .    ,                  -. ,    ,           ,  ,        .              .    !       ,     ,          [31 -  , . 1112.].

    ,     ,     ,   :

   (  )   ,     [32 -  , .   . 106107.];

    ,    .        (  ,    ),      [33 -  , . 71.];

  ,    ;

     ;

 ,       ;

  :            (       McDonald's,          )[34 -  , . 113.].

                   .      ,   ,  ,    ,      ,        .          ,   .    ,    ,  ,    .

      McDonald's   15    1967 ,   [35 -     ,       .     ,     .]       .        :



             ,      ,     [36 -  , . 7778.].    .


         ?  .       . , ,   , ,   , ,  . ,    ,   1961    .       .            .

     ,     ,    McDonald's     .




 McDonald's     ,           ,    .  ,      . McDonald's               ,      .          McDonald's  .

   1976    McDonald's  4?177 .        (   ).  1984    ,       .     67    35  ,   119          .

  1976   McDonald's Corporation (       ,       )      ,         .  2014    28,1       8,8  .



      93,5  ,    39   ,           1961 .


 :  Standard & Poor's[37 -  Standard & Poor's   ,           .]          .  ,  ( ,     )      90  .     ,     ,        .




1.McDonald's     :                 .         ,       ?

2.      ,  :          ,   .

3.                  ,      1948 .    -  ,     ,                  ?

4.   :  ,   ,   ,              .     , ,       ,      ?

5.        (  ,    ),  (  )    ( ).          ?

6.  McDonald's      .     ,           .     ,           .




[ 4]

   

      1984 


  ,  ,   ,   ,  ,  .  ,         - .

 

     ,     ,   .    ,    ,         ,    .

    .      22  1984 ,    ,      ,        :          ,         Macintosh,          .   : 24  Apple Computer   Macintosh.   ,  1984       1984.

       750  ,       800 .    .          ,     .   Advertising Age  TV Guide            .

  (Big Brother)     IBM,     (Big Blue).   1983   Business Week ,          .   IBM         26%,  ,   1985        .  25%    IBM- [38 - Business Week. 3October 1983.].

        Macintosh, 24  1984 ,    Apple     IBM  .   ,       ,  ,      :



  1984 . ,  IBM                      Apple.          ?    ?     ?[39 -   Isaacson. . ., . 169.].


         .         ,  . ,    ,     .

 1984     1970-,     .      ,   ,    .  1975  Altair  MITS             .     (   )   ,    .  495  -       ,          [40 -  , . 59.].

      ,       .  1975      Apple I   ,  Altair,      .         Apple II.          ,       Cuisinart.    ,          .                   [41 - Kahney. . . . 7276; Isaacson. . ., . 73.].

 ,  , ,               ,   Apple     .     :



    , ,              ,  ,        :   .  [42 - Isaacson. . ., . 125126.].


         Apple II,     ,      Xerox PARC  -.        1979 .    .        ,       ,     .   Xerox   ,             .  ,    ,         .



    ,    .  !  .      .  ,     [43 -  , . 97.].


      Xerox Star,   1981 .   ,        .     Xerox Star  16?595      30  .   ,   Xerox Star.



Apple Lisa    1983 .    ,       ,    ,         . 


   [44 -  㻠  . WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get     ,   )         ,   .]Apple Lisa     ,     .    Lisa 2  3?495    20%  Xerox Star     [45 -  , . 99.]. Macintosh    :   2?495      .        ,            ,  ,    .

 ,      .         ,    .       , ,    ,      (          )      .

    .          (   )         .       ,        ,         .           ,    ,    ,      .       , Apple    Ford  . ,    ,     :

   ,       ,    .



 1979          ,       .   - ,     ,  .     [46 -  , . 95100, 491.].


    .  ,    .  1984     25%     IBM PC,  ,    ,     .



           .        ,       .   ,    .


         ,  ,       ,            Xerox Star.         ,             . ,            .    ,     .         Apple     .

       , ,     .          ,     .    ,     .      컠     -,       .              ,       [47 -  , . 195.].

   , IKEA  McDonald's,  ,                   50  90%.     .   ,  ,         ,      ()  ,             .

       .         ,       ,      ,   . , iPod, iPad  Apple Watch    :         ,    .



,          .     ,          ,    ,     ,   . 


      ,        ,    ,       .

  Macintosh    ,      .

1.  :

    ;

   DOS-,       .   IBM PC,   1981 ,         ;

   Macintosh                  ,  DOS-.

2. :

         ;

      ;

             .

3. :

     ;

    ;

          -  IBM     .

   raison d'etre[48 -   (.).] .    ,    .         ,  Apple,         .

  Lisa  Macintosh    Xerox Star.      ,       .   Xerox   ,      .  , -       300 .    -      15 ,           .       .

       Xerox.    :         ,    ,         ,    ,    . Xerox Star      .      ,   .


   ?

 :

  ,      ;

  ,    ;

   ;

  ;

  ;

    .

           .      ,           ,   ,         (      ).    .      ,   ,            .

    ,            ,        .                    .

          .       .    ,           40%,    Apple,            .



  ,           ,       .   ,   ,    . 


       10%,       IBM.   IBM  IBM-  ,   Microsoft        .

Windows 1.0      1985           (    Xerox).       ,     1985  1996 ,     Apple,       Macintosh   .

      ,  IBM        Microsoft.     IBM   ,             Compaq  Hewlett Packard,    Dell. IBM               .       IBM            ,     .  2005                Lenovo.

      Apple?            3%,       1997    .      ,      -            iMac,     1998      .          800   iMac    1299           [49 -  , . 356.].

 2000-    ,       Apple.     ,       .



      ,        .             ,   .





  2000   Microsoft      Apple   .    Apple  Microsoft,       70%    .      Apple  742  .

 2010   Macintosh       7%,     35%     [50 -  , .159.]  ,     . Apple          ,     .

             Apple.    Apple,           .




1.    ,     .    ,     .     ,    ?

2.        . Apple       ,        ,    .   ,      ?

3.           ,          .       .       .           ?

4.   , ,  IBM,     ,     .   ,   ,    ,   ,        ,   ,  .        ?




[ 5]

 


     .

 . 

    .         ,          ,       .  ,             ,   .            .         ,          .

 1975 ,   MBA - ,  (  )     Boston Consulting Group       .  ,      . ,     ,    ,   ,  .           , ,    .     ,  ,         ,  ,     ,      .  ,   BCG ,   .

     ,    ,      BCG.      1963 ,           McKinsey.         ,     ,    ,    (   )   .  , McKinsey  .

    BCG   .       -,      ,   .    McKinsey    ,  BCG       ,      .

     ,              . BCG ,     ,    ,          軠           ,           .

   컠       .    . BCG ,         ,   ,     -.



 BCG     .      ,   :    ,   ,           .


  ,      .         ,       :           .             ,   BCG.       ,     .       ,        .    (  )   .

    BCG,   .

    . BCG     ,         , McKinsey.   ,   ,        .             .         .

,     BCG?

1. :

   -    ,            .         ,    ,   :             .         .       ,        ,   .  -      ,        .            ,  ;

          .

2. :

   ,          .       .        , ,  ,         .   ,       .      ,       ,      ;

   BCG    ,      . ,   ,    ,          .

3. :

        ,    .         ;

  BCG       ,   ,       -,    .

BCG    ,    .      .                 .      ,        .   BCG   McKinsey           .

    .   BCG      ,    .    , BCG ,       . ,     .  BCG,     ,        .

     (    ,    )   Bain & Company.        BCG  1973 .    BCG  Bain  1980    ,       ,      .  Bain      ,   .     .    .   ,    .

      Bain  ,        .          .  Bain   :     , ,   .



         .       ,   Bain    .


,   Bain   ,     .  (   Bain)         ,       ( ,     19701980).        .       (  ,   ),      ,         .        .

 (  Bain)       :            (BCG, McKinsey   );       . ,      ,     .       ,    ,    - .  ,      Bain   .         ,       .   ,          ,      ,    .

   Bain    . ,  ,       , Bain            ,     .         ,      .   Bain       ,     ,         .   ,           ,     .



        Bain & Company  ,       .          ,     .


   ,  ,      Bain .             ,       .  Bain,  BCG   MKinsey:         ,         .

   Bain & Company       -.      Bain       .      Bain   .

1. :

     .     ,       .  ,   .    ,     ,          .         ,    ,       ;

    ,              (  - , );

          .

2. :

 Bain      ;

     -        .       Bain,    ,     .

3. :

  Bain      .   !         .             .

 19701980-  Bain    BCG,   alma mater    .      6?000 ,   BCG  9700. Bain  BCG           (    McKinsey).

,       ,   Bain  BCG   .    ,  -     ,          .      , - , -    ,          ,     .   ,   ,       ,         ,           .    ,      .     ,     Bain  BCG,     ,         .

         , ,  Bain  BCG,   -     .



         - ,   ( !)    ,    .               ,            .


,          ,          ,   .      ,           ,             .  ,       IKEA.            .      ,     .  ,    ,       .



     ,               .            .        .


McDonald's    ,      ,         . -   ,      .       IKEA     .     ,      ,       .

    -       ,    . ,     ,     .     ,         .    ,  ,    .




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/richard-koh/sila-uproscheniya-kluch-k-dostizheniu-fenomenalnogo-ryvka-v-karere-i-biznese/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


Richard Koch (2008). The Star Principle: How It Can Make You Rich, London: Piatkus.




2


Sunday Times Rich List 2015, Sunday Times Magazine, 26 April 2015, P. 72: Richard Koch 180m.




3


  ( . venture  )   ,        .       .  . .




4


Ray Kroc (1977). Grinding It Out: The Making of McDonalds, Chicago: Contemporary Books, P. 7071.




5


 , !




6


Walter Isaacson (2011). Steve Jobs, New York: Simon & Schuster, . 126.




7


 , . 564.




8


Leander Kahney (2008/2009) Inside Steves Brain, London: Atlantic Books, . 96.




9


Ford. . ., . 64.




10


 , . 67.




11


 , . 73.




12


 , . 6768.




13


 , . 58.




14


 , . 72.




15


 , . 69.




16


 , . 66.




17


 , . 74.




18


 , . 68.




19


.  15.




20


He Lives in a Bungalow, Flies EasyJet and Dries Out Three Times a Year. The Man who Founded IKEA and is Worth 15bn, Daily Mail, 14 April 2008, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-559487/He-lives-bungalow-flies-easyJet-dries-times-year  man-founded-IKEA-worth-pound-15bn.html.




21


Ingvar Kamprad (1976). The Testament of a Furniture Dealer, Delft, The Netherlands: Inter IKEA Systems BV.




22


  : Chris Zook and James Allen (2012). Repeatability: Building Enduring Businesses for a World of Constant Change, Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, P. 99100.




23


  ,    -     1940 .




24


He Lives in a Bungalow. . .




25


Kamprad. . .




26


   Chip Heath and Dan Heath (2008). Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Take Hold and Others Come Unstuck, London: Arrow, P. 28.




27


Kroc. . ., . 68 ( ,  ).




28


The Average McDonalds by the Numbers, Burger Business, 8 February 2012, www.burgerbusiness.com/?p=9385, retrieved 3 November 2012.




29


       ,  Mcdonald's,    .




30


Kroc. . ., . 100.




31


 , . 1112.




32


 , .   . 106107.




33


 , . 71.




34


 , . 113.




35


    ,       .     ,     .




36


 , . 7778.




37


 Standard & Poor's   ,           .




38


Business Week. 3October 1983.




39


  Isaacson. . ., . 169.




40


 , . 59.




41


Kahney. . . . 7276; Isaacson. . ., . 73.




42


Isaacson. . ., . 125126.




43


 , . 97.




44


 㻠  . WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get     ,   )         ,   .




45


 , . 99.




46


 , . 95100, 491.




47


 , . 195.




48


  (.).




49


 , . 356.




50


 , .159.


