      
. . 

. . 

. . 

. . 


     ,  ,      , , ,    .      ,      .





.. , . . , . . , . . 

    

  





I. 





1.  


    , ,    .

- .      (, , ),          (, , ).

   ,      .

    ,   .

        .  




X   , Z       .. ,A   .   Z    ,          .  A        .    A  Z.

    ,    .

   (A


)          


/


    


.

   (M


)          


/


      


.

   (..)  


/


     


. 1..  = 1,66? 10


 .

   ,     (, , ),     0,012   


.    ,  6,02  10


   (, , ).

n= N/N


, n    (), N   , a N


   .        v.

  N


 = 6,02  10


 /.

 M (/)    m()   n ():

 = m/n, :m = ̠n n = m/.

   V


(/)    V ()     n ().    V


 = 22,4 /.

 :  t =0C,   = 273 ,   = 1 = 760 . . . =101 325  = 101,325 .

V


 = V/n, : V = V


n n = V/V


.

    :

n= m/M = V/V


 = N/N


.

     ,     ,   ,    -  .

   


        : 


 = m/n


.

       




    : 


 = /(n? m).

 -          : 


 = /n(e),  n(e)   .

      1  2     . m


/m


= 


/


,  m


/


 = m


/


,  n


 = n


,  m


 m


   , 


 


    , n


  n


    .

         :

c


 V


 = c


 V


, 


, 


,V


 V


         .

  : pV = nRT, p   (, ), V   (


, ),n     (),T   (),T () = t (C) + 273, R  , R = 8,314 /(ʠ? ),    =  


 =  .




2.    


-      ,       ,   .     ,      :? = h/(mV),  h   ,?   ,       m   V.       ,       ,       .

  :?(mV


)  ? > h/2n  ?V


  ?x > h/(2?m), m   ,x   , V


    x,?  ,  .   ,         ( x)   (V


) .

    (, , , )              .    .

  n   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6  7,    () , L, M, N, ,   Q.

  ,       n.          ,  n     (  n,   )   R     (  n,   R).

 (, )  l       n:l = 0, 1,(n  1). , n = 2,  l = 0, 1; n = 3,  l = 0, 1, 2.  l   ().

  ,     n  l.         l: s   l = 0,p   l = 1, d   l = 2,f   l = 3.         n  l, : 2s ( = 2,l = 0), 3d (n = 3,l = 2)  ..       (  l,   ): E


< E < 


 <     ,   : s-   , p-     ..

  m


    ,  l,         :  l,-1, 0, 1,l, ..  (2l + 1) . ,  l = 2,  m


 = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2.

 ( ) ,    (  )   n, l, m


.   2l+1 . , d     d-.   ,    m


,   .

   m


      s,  ?,        : +?  


?.

    ,      .

 :            .         .

   ,         ,       2(2l + 1) ,      2n


.

 :         (n + l),      (n + l)     n.

   .




  ,      : 1s, 2s, 2, 3s, , 4s, 3d, 4, 5s, 4d, 5, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, 8s,

      ,        : 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4, 4d, 4f  ..  ,       : Br(35e) 1s


2s


2p


3s


3p


3d


4s


4p


.

         . ,  r  Cu:

r(24e) 1s


2s


2p


3s


3p


3d


4s


  Cu(29e) 1s


2s


2p


3s


3p


3d


4s


.

  ():  -    ,     .        .

      , , -. ,   (15e)   :

) )2)8)5;

)  1s


2s


2p


3s


3p


;

) 




      :

V(23e) 1s


2s


2p


3s


3p


3d


4s


;

V


(20e) 1s


2s


2p


3s


3p


3d


4s


.




3. 





3.1.   


   ,            .





 .





- .

           ,  .    ,      ,                    .


 

,    :




  :     ,   .

       ()   ,       ?-.    ()     . ,        2s   2p-.     ?-,     CH


, CF


  ..,   s-   -     sp


-:




     ,        ,    .

           :

sp  ,    - 180;

sp


 ,     120;

sp


 ,     109;

sp


d


 -,  90  120;

sp


d


 ,     90;

sp


d


 ,     90.




3.2.   


   -,      .        ().              ,  .      ,    .      ( ),  ( )   (, - ),     .

  

1. ,    .

2. ,   .

3. ,    .

    (   )    :

?,      ,

?,      ,

?,       .

      ,          .      n, :n = (n


  n


)/2,  n


  n


        .

       ,      ,  :   (       ),   (    )  ..

 1s-AO    (  )     ?-  ?*-:




  ,   n,        R           :




    ,  2s-AO,   2


-, 2


  2


-,      ?  ?-MO.   , F  Ne  2s  2-  ,     2s-AO    2-  ,    2s-AO       2-O.     O


, F


, Ne


   :




  , , N  2s  2-    ,  2s-AO     2


-  .      


, 


  N


       O


, F


  Ne


.       


, 


  N


:




     , ,     O


, O





  O


?:

O





(11e)?





?





?





(?





?





)(?





?





)

n=2 R = 0,121 ;

O


(12e)?





?





?





(?





?





)(?





?





)

n= 2,5 R = 0,112 ;

O


?(13e)?





?





?





(?





?





)(?





?





)

n= 1,5 R = 0,126 .

   O


        ,  n = 2,          O





  O


  O


?,     O


,        .




3.3.   


        .          .   ,     ?   1,52,0.

     .   NaCl  Na


    Cl?      Na


,       .           .

            (F, CI, N)  .

      :     ,     : t


(


O) = 100 ,  t


(H


S) = -61C.   H


S    .




4.   





4.1. 


 ()    .   () , ,    :  =   ?V.

,     , .

,     , .

 : , , , ,    .

 :   .

     ,  ,        .

 (Q)           .     (m)    ()  ?Q      ?t: ?Q =m    ?t,  ?t = ?Q/(c  ).

   ,             .       .

  :        ,      .

  (U)       ,  .             (Q = ?U = U


  U


),  ,        .      ,         ,           ?U    =   ?V.         : ? =?U +   ?V,     = U + pV.           (?V = 0),      ?   ?U (? = ?U).       ? > ?U,   ,  ? < ?U,   .

       : ..      (,   ) ,   1  = 101 325 ,  298     1 /.

   ?


 ,      1     ,  ,   . , , ?


(NaCl) = -411 /.  ,    Na() + ?Cl


() =NaCl()   1  NaCl  411  .

   ?       ,   :? = ?


()  ?


().

   NH


() + HCl() = NH


Cl(),  ?H








(NH


)=-46 /, ?H








(HCl) = -92 /  ?H








(NH


Cl) = -315 / :

?H = ?H








(NH


Cl)  ?H








(NH


) ?H








(HCl) = -315  (-46)  (-92) = -177 .

 ? < 0,   .  ? > 0,   .

 :                 .

       , ..     (? < 0),      , ..     (? > 0).       .

 S  ,    . S   , ?S    .  ?S > 0,  ,  AS < 0,    .       , ?S > 0.  ,     , ?S < 0. ,     :

() + 


O() = (OH)


(), ?S < 0;

CaCO


() = () + CO


(), ?S > 0.

     , ..   ? < 0,    , ..   ?S > 0.         : G =   TS  ?G = ?    ?S. 




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/e-sorokina/sbornik-osnovnyh-formul-po-himii-dlya-vuzov/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .


