Linux
  


 .   
    Linux.        ,   ,    ,   ,   .       Linux    :  , WWW, FTP, INN, Proxy, NTP,     ,      .     Linux  ,  .. ,         X Window,     ,   ,    Linux-   ,   ,  , TV-  ..           Red Hat Linux 7.x,   ,             Linux.      Linux.





  

Linux





 I

  Linux





 1

  Linux


 ,  Microsoft     ,    ,      .

 ,   Linux


        .                     .      :     ,    Linux.                    .

       ?    :

 DOS (MS-DOS, DR-DOS   );

 Windows 3.1x;

 OS/2;

 Windows 9x;

 Windows NT (Windows 2000);

 Mac OS;

 Mac OS X;

  UNIX;

 Free BSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD;

 Linux;

 BeOS;

 QNX.

,     ,       ,   .       ,       ,  ,  , .

      . -,           (-). -,           (        )     . -,     (     ,  PC-)   (    ,  PC-, Macintosh, Sun, PowerPC). -,       . -,   . -, ,   . -,  ,      . -,       . -,     ..     . ,     ,  .       ,  "  "  "  ,   ?"      ,          ( ).              .      .





 1980        /usr/group      UNIX.     1984     ANSI     .  1985    Portable Operating System Interface for Computing Environment,  POSIX (      ).        (  )  POSIX.





DOS


  Microsoft.      PC. 16- ,  . ,   .  (PC-).   ( ).    .    FAT 12, FAT 16, FAT 32.         .   .     .  ,       .       ,         1990-  (  10 !).    (  )  MS-DOS 6.22.       .  (  IBM  Microsoft)   ,     ,      PC  ,            //.  DOS     ,        DOS  .   .    IBM-DOS, PC-DOS, DR-DOS.




Windows 3.1x


       ,    ,  ,   DOS.   ?  ,   ,    3.1    ,  ,       .  Windows   PC      .    ,   ,    ,        ,    Windows.   Windows    ,          .    -      .     ,    .  Windows 3.1x      , ,  1996      Windows 3.1x    .    .    . .   .   (16 ) Windows for Workgroups 3.11.       386,   2 ( 4)   ,   16     .




OS/2


  IBM  Microsoft.  IBM  Microsoft ,  OS/2       IBM,         . -    IBM,     Microsoft,         IBM     OS/2.    (   DOS  Windows 3.1x)   .   ( 24)    . 32-   .      .  ,    OS/2,     DOS-,    Windows 3.1.   Odin,    Windows 9.    HPFS (High Performance File System).       ,    FAT 12, FAT 16, FAT 32.       Pentium,   32   ,   120     .




Windows 9x


32-     16-  (Windows 3.1x).     1995 .          .  Microsoft  ,             DOS, Windows 3.1x (16 )  Windows 9 (32 ).       ,      1998  (Windows 98).   ,  Windows 9   ,  -   MS-DOS  7.0      .  Windows 9   ,     ,        .

Windows 98   , Windows ME (Millennium Edition),  Microsoft      Windows NT (Windows 2000),   Windows 9    ,   .      ,          .      .       .    Windows 9  MS Office   de-facto    . .   .       Pentium-166,   32   ,   250      ( Windows ME   64   ,   500     ).    FAT 32 (FAT 16).




Windows NT (Windows 2000)


    DOSWindows 3.1x Microsoft     Windows NT (New Technology),    POSIX      NTFS (New Technology File System).  Windows NT            (          Windows ).    Windows NT      Microsoft.      Windows NT Workstation  Windows NT Server.      ,    .      ,      -     . , ,  (PC),    .       .       (        Windows NT).       (, , Web-cepepa).   . . Windows NT Server       ,      .  NTFS    FAT  OS/2 (HPFS).     Windows NT Workstation   Pentium,   128   ,   500     ; Windows NT Server   Pentium,   256   ,   500     .




Mac OS


  Apple.    Macintosh   , , , .      15  .   Mac OS X        .      ,    .         ,   .   Mac OS     Apple,    Motorola 68040  PowerPC    16   .




Mac OS X


  Apple.      Macintosh,    PowerPC. UNIX-, POSIX-,      .      ,       . ,   .  Apple     Mac OS X   Intel.     NFS (Network File System). Mac OS X      Power Macintosh   G3.     128   .      5 .




 UNIX


  ,        UNIX.    AT&T, DEC, Sun, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, SCO   .       UNIX      , UNIX      ,      .     UNIX   AT&T,     .    UNIX    -       ,     ,        . , ,   .  ,  ,   ,       .      ,          UNIX.  , UNIX,  , ,    .   ,    (,  BSD, Linux) ,     UNIX-  .   POSIX          UNIX  .    UNIX     ,    .  ,    UNIX    ,    UNIX      .      ..   .                ,      .      ,       .   ,     ,   ,     ,       .   ,  -  ,        .       .        ,          UNIX.




FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD


 POSIX-   UNIX     .  :

FreeBSD   ,   (    ).    Intel;

NetBSD       ;

OpenBSD     FreeBSD  NetBSD   .

,   .      -     FreeBSD.     ,   SCO, BSD/OS, Net/Free/OpenBSD, 386BSD  Linux.




Linux


POSIX- UNIX-  .             .       UNIX    .              Linux        ,       ,  ,       .       Linux           (Free Software Foundation, USA)   GNU (The GNU General Public License,    GNU)   .       Linux,          ,    (  23 ),    ,     ,   .  ,   -,  ,   - . ,     UNIX     Linux.    ,      ( 486, 8   ,  120 ). ,   , ,   ,       .    ,    Ext2.         ,      ,      -  .




BeOS


  Be Inc. UNIX-   . .    BeOS       .  .     (    ),         . BeOS       (SMP) ( 8- ),   BFS (Be File System), 64-  .  ,   POSIX-.          BeOS 5  (Personal Edition)  (    , www.be.com (http://www.be.com/))  BeOS 5 Pro   (  CD-ROM     ).    ( ,   BeOS,    ).        FAT 16, FAT 32 (   ), NTFS ( ), HFS, ext2, CDFS.    Pentium-133,    32 ,     512  (  120 ).     Windows  Linux.    PC, PowerPC.




QNX


 QNX  QNX Software Systems. UNIX- POSIX-    . 32-, , , .      ,      99,999%  ( ).     ,        .   .    ( ).       386- , 8  .    QNX,   ,     QNX Real Time Platform,      (www.qnx.com (http://www.qnx.com/)).        Pentium-200, 32  , 100    .

      ,        ,   .     Linux,    Windows 9  Windows NT/2000    90% PC-  ,             ,  , ,   .



 

  ?   ?       .    . ,            .         ,       , .       ,   .         .    "  "  ,     ,        -   .   .   ,     ,      ,  ,   ,        ..       ,       .    , ,    .       ,   ,    ,  ,          ..             ,  -   . ,          .


     Mac OS ,  - , Mac OS X,   BeOS.    Windows 9, OS/2.  ,   , DOS, Windows 3.1x, Windows NT/2000, UNIX-, BSD-, Linux, QNX.          - (, Microsoft  Windows 9        ).       (  ,     ,     )       . , ,  ,    .    ,  Linux      KDE  GNOME  ,    ,    (   ,     -),      ,     .  Windows     ,      ,      , ,      Advanced Users,  ,      ,       ,             .       ,   ,    .

1.        (User Friendly).

2.     (    ).

3.       .

4.     (   ).

5.    .

6.     ,    .

7.       .

      .  . , ,    .  ,              ,    ,     .  . , , ,     ,     -  ,     .        .     ,   , ,    386-,     .   ( , ,   ..)           .        ,  ,         ,     ,               .        ,              .  .       .          ,     (     )  .  . ,  ?    Windows      ,     .    ,        .  .   .    -     - ,        ,  - 3     .  .   .             . ,   ,     . 4.    ,    .  .      ,      ,    .

       .

DOS      ,  . 7.

Windows 3.1x   . 1 ,  . 3 . 5,  . 7.

OS/2   . 1, . 2 (  ), . 3,  . 4, . 5 . 7.

Windows 9   . 1,  . 3,   . 7.

Windows NT (Windows 2000)  . 1, . 2 (        ), . 3 . 4 ,   . 7.

     . 1, . 2 (  ),  . 3, . 4, . 5, . 6,  . 7.

  X    . 1, . 2 (        ), . 3, . 4, . 6,    . 7.

UNIX-     ,  ,   ,         UNIX-    .

FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD     UNIX-      .

Linux     ,  . 2, . 3, . 6, . 7.

BeOS      () . 7.

QNX    .

   ,    . DOS  Windows 3.1x  ,      . OS/2     ,   :   (IBM     ),      , . Mac OS, Mac OS X          ,      .          Apple.                . QNX    ,        .  ,         ,          ,  ,          ( ,   , , ).     Windows 9 Windows NT ( Windows ),  UNIX,      UNIX  FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, Linux     BeOS.

     Windows-   UNIX.        Windows 9/  Windows NT/2000/XP.  (   ,    ) ,    ,  Windows 9/  Windows NT/2000,        .      Windows 9/    ,  ,  Windows 9/         DOS/Windows 3.1x  Windows N /2000, ,  Microsoft  .     UNIX-     Windows NT/2000,   Windows NT/2000,      ,    ,    UNIX- .       Windows 9/.        , Windows 9/       ,      " " ,     (    , , ,       ),    . , ,     Windows 9/ ( ,     )        .    35       ,         , ,   ,  ,         . ,  ,  ,                    ,    .       Windows 9/    .      RAID-,   ,      Intel. Windows 9/     .

 ,   (    )    UNIX  Windows NT/2000.  Windows NT/2000         Windows 9/ ,   Windows NT/2000   ,         .      Windows 9/     ,     ,           "    ".     Linux,   Windows  Linux.

-,     Linux  Windows   .  Windows 9/       150200 ,   Windows NT/2000   .  ,     Microsoft Office,        600 , ,    -     .    ,      ,    .            .   ,     5-   7 10.     .    .  Microsoft        -     ,       ,         Excel 97,   Excel 95   .       (35 )        25. .   , Linux   515 ,     23 -,  ,    ,  .     Linux         30  (       ).             Linux    .  ,      Microsoft     - Microsoft. ,              ,     , ,           -   .    Linux       ,   ,  .  Linux   ,     .  ,    Web-,   Linux  ,       ,    , ,   ,     15.  ,    .       Linux        ,     ,  ,   . ,         .   ,         .

-, Linux            .  Windows .      Intel   ,       Linux.   Windows 9/     Pentium-166  64   ,   Windows NT/2000    Pentium II 350   128,   256   .

  ,     .     Linux       ,       . ,  Red Hat Linux 7.1    (, ,  )      ,       (      : , ,    ),          .           (,  ,    ),            .  ,  Linux     (    ,    )    ,  CD-ROM,      ,      .     Linux      .          .   , , .     Linux      .  , Windows       .        ,  .  UNIX   .     ,     ,      UNIX-      .      Linux     ,   . , ,  ,   -,       Linux.  ,       ,    .

    . Microsoft          .     (  45 )   ,       .             .   (  ,  3040% )         .          Windows    ,     ,         . , ,  ,    Windows, ,  ,   .  Linux     .            .       ,          .    Linux  ,       .

 . ,  Windows    Windows 3.1    Windows 95,        ,      Linux (      UNIX) Windows  .   ,         Windows 2000 ( !)    ,        .

     , ,    ,          500   , ,      ,     .     Linux        1,44 .   -    80150 .  Windows 98,      Windows NT,    .

   .     Microsoft    :      .  Windows NT   6 -,         ,    -   .        .     ,     .        ,   , .   ,    Linux     ,    .           .    ,           .     ,    ,    ,       .    ,       ,    .          ,     ,     .  , ,     ,    ,  ,     .  -   ,      Linux,             .

,   Windows   Linux         .   ,   -        Linux   . ,    ,    Linux   ,   ,   .   ,      Microsoft Office ,  -   ,  , -  ..,  .. ,      ,       ,    ,   .            ? ,       .        , , ?   Sony Play Station, Microsoft Xbox.

    . ,             , ,  ,     .  -      .    .  Windows 9/      ,      .     Windows        - ,        . -   Windows 9x/ME Windows NT/2000     . ,    Windows NT  , ,   ,      ,  UNIX.         ,    .      40 (!)      Linux,       2  3.  ,      ,      .

     Linux.




  Linux


  .

     UNIX. Linux    UNIX,     .

       Linux ,     .

   Linux   ,      95% ,    .

     Linux ,      ,  .

  Linux      (99,99%)          .

 intranet- " ",   -  ,      .

          .

   Linux  .

     ,     ,        .

     ,         486- .

  ,    .

   ,         ,          ,       .

 Linux     .          Linux     .

  Linux   ,             .

      Linux,       Linux

     .




 


 Intel      Linux, a IBM         Linux   .  Red Hat Linux 4.1        .    Linux      .  Dream Works,     ,  ,           Linux.  Corel         Linux.       (NSF)   TeraGrid    ,    .  TeraGrid     IBM,     Linux        Qwest.







,  BeOS:

www.benews.ru (http://www.benews.ru/)    BeOS   ;

www.bebits.com (http://www.bebits.com/)       BeOS;

besoft.org (http://www.besoft.org/)       BeOS.

,  QNX:

www.qnx.com (http://www.qnx.com/)    QNX Software Systems,  QNX;

qnx.boom.ru (http://www.qnx.boom.ru/)  , ,  QNX;

qnxworld.main.ru (http://www.qnxworld.main.ru/)      QNX;

www.crosswinds.net/~kthulu/russian (http://www.crosswinds.net/~kthulu/russian)     QNX.

,  FreeBSD:

www.freebsd.org (http://www.freebsd.org/)   FreeBSD;

www.freebsd.ru (http://www.freebsd.ru/)   .

,  Linux:

www.linux.org.ru (http://www.linux.org.ru/)     Linux;

www.linux.org (http://www.linux.org/)    Linux;

www.linuxdocs.org (http://www.linuxdocs.org/)     Linux;

www.linuxrsp.ru (http://www.linuxrsp.ru/)   ;

www.redhat.com (http://www.redhat.com/)    Red Hat.

,  Windows:

www.microsoft.com (http://www.microsoft.com/)     Microsoft;

www.winffles.com (http://www.winffles.com/)      Windows.

,  Apple:

www.apple.com (http://www.apple.com/)    Apple;

www.apple.ru (http://www.apple.ru/)    Apple.




 2

 Linux



      ,     Linux.       ,      ,      .    ,        ,       .  ,     ,   .   ,           (, ,   ),     ,    ,        ,   .       ,    :      ,   .  ,       ,  ,          .      ,          ,            .   Linux          ,  ,  .   , ,  .    Linux        ,    Linux        .  ,   ,  Linux    -,            .    .           .










   


Linux        TCP/IP, ,    .     ,  ,   ,   .      Linux      IPX/SPX  Novell Netware,  NetBIOS (Microsoft Windows 3.1x, Windows 9x/ME, Windows NT/2000)  AppleTalk (Apple Mac OS).     ,     ,       , ,    95% .     Linux      ,           :   Ethernet, Radio Ethernet, ArcNet,    , ISDN, ATM,     . ,       ,   .        Linux, ,  ,      .        Win-,       .  ,              Linux           , , netconf.





        UNIX (, ,  Linux)    ,          .      ,  ,        ,      ,  .           .





 


          ,     .   ,     Linux   .   ,        UNIX ( )     -.     ?  , ,  Web-, FTP,    .    ( )          DNS,  -,      - .    Linux ,         ,    .      ,  . , , Web-   : Lynx   , Netscape Navigator, Mozilla, Opera, Konqueror  .




.2.1. Web- Mozilla



        ,   : Pine, Netscape-, Kmail, Evolution  ..

   -,              .   -     .    NFS,  Mars  -   Netware,  Samba  -   Microsoft.      ,  ,     .           ,  - ,       (,   ).   Linux   .    , ,            Linux,  ,   ,    ,  ,    Web- ,  ,    -    .            , linuxconf,    .           Web-.     ICQ -: licq, kicq, GNOMEICQ, micq,   ,    .




.2.2.   Evolution,    




 


   ,    DOS,        ,         .   Linux         Linux,   ,   .         .  ,      ,   X Window.   , ,        Midnight Commander (   Norton Commander).




.2.3.   Midnight Commander






.2.4.     



   ,  ,  ,     ..           RPM,   FTP,  HTML-,    .        XNC.  ,        X Window, , Kcommander  Kruiser.




 


          ,      .        ,   X Window. ,             .       Linux,         ,                  ,     .         Web-     .       ,      .        vi,      UNIX,      vim, joe, pico, jed,   Midnight Commander, EMACS    (      ) .

 X Window   .   ,  Windows Notepad, , ,    ,       .      Kedit, Gedit, Kwrite, Kword, Ted, Abiword, StarWord  .       .




 


  ,  Linux    , -  .      (  )      Windows,    UNIX-.    Windows,  Linux (UNIX)   (X Window)    : -   .   -      (  ,    ..)     ,       ,  ,      .             .   IceWM  AfterStep        (     486- ),  ,     Windows FVWM95,      Windows,  廠 KDE  GNOME.




.2.5. GNOME, Win4Lin, OpenOffice, Licq



        (  )   ,         . ,      ,     Linux ( )   X Window    .  ,        ,    .




 


      .      ,      CorelDRAW  Photoshop.        .   Gimp   , ,  ,  Windows, StarDraw        , Starlmage        , KimageShop   .




.2.6.   Gimp




Web-


    Web-    ,        HTML-.  Linux, ,  HTML-   .  ,   HTML- StarWriter/Web, Web Maker (  , )  Quanta Plus (     , ).




 



  ,       Linux    -  .   ,    ,    Linux      ,         ,    . ,      ,  ,    .         -   ,  ..   Microsoft Office,           ,      ,       .

      ,   :

  ();

     ;

    (  );

  ;

     ( );

 ;

     

 ..

       , ,          .        ,               .

         Microsoft Office,       ,   ,    .    ,      ,        Microsoft Office.       Linux,           Microsoft Office  ,      .       ,          Microsoft.

     Linux     .

         ,      .    .

Applixware  Applix      ,    ,     ,    StarOffice  5.2. WordPerfect Office 2000     Applixware,  ,   ,   ,     .




StarOffice 5.2


 StarOffice    Star Division,      Sun Microsystems.     StarOffice 5.2 ,  Sun Microsystems          StarOffice 6.

    (        ):

  StarWriter;

  HTML- StarWriter/Web;

     StarCalc;

   Starlmpress;

       StarDraw;

       Staiimage;

    StarBase;

  StarMail;

StarDiscussion;

StarChart;

StarMath;

StarSchedule;

StarDesktop   ,       ,       ,   KDE  GNOME.

      ,      ,   ,      ,             .  ,        .  ,  6-    OpenOffice    ,         .

,   ,    StarOffice 5.2.            ,   .

     .   :

 Pentium  ;

64  ;

  180       (        250 );

 VGA    256      800x600;

CD-ROM (    ,   StarOffice  CD-ROM);

 Linux  2.0.x  ;

    X Window     ;

    GLibc  2.1.1  .

  Sun         ,     .  ,     .   Microsoft Office ,           (,  Excel,    Word).




OpenOffice


     StarOffice.      :

OpenCalc   ;

OpenDraw   ;

OpenWriter   ;

Impress   .




Koffice


   .    KDE.   :

KSpread   ;

KPresenter   ;

KChart   ;

    ;

Kontour    ;

KFormula   ;

KWord  WYSIWYG- ;

KOrganizer  ;

Kivio    ;

Kugar     -;

Kplato       .

    KDE-,     KDE-     ,  ,     Microsoft Office,        CSV, RTF.   .     .




GNOME Workshop


      GNOME.     :

AbiWord     ;

Achtung   ;

Balsa    ;

Dia       ,  Microsoft Visio;

Eye of GNOME     ;

Evolution   ,  Microsoft Outlook;

Galeon   Web-;

Gfax       ;

GIMP    ;

GNOME-DB      ;

Gnucash    ;

Gnumeric   ;

Guppi    ;

MrProject    ;

Sketch    ;

Sodipodi    ;

Toutdoux    .

        OpenOffice.




.2.7.      Dia




 


  ,  Linux             .    IBM DB2, Informix, Oracle, Sybase SQL Anywhere, Interbase, PostgreeSQL, MySQL.     ,    . ,   ,        .




 Windows


   Windows   Linux: Citrix MetaFrame, Mainsoft's MainWin, Win4Lin, VMWare, WINE  .     :      Windows 9.v,        Windows NT/2000.        DirectX.    Linux ,     OpenGL,     ,      DirectX,     . ,   ,      .   VMWare.    Windows,   !    VMWare    ,     .




  



 Linux,    UNIX,   , , C/C++,     ,   ,    ( )   .        .   !   - ,        Linux: C/C++, Pascal, Perl, Java, Lisp, Rexx, Fortran  ..,  ..       .     Borland   Kylix  Linux- Delphi (Windows).




Kylix


,   Delphi 6    ,       Linux.     Kylix           ,      Web-  Borland.        Builder. ,      . -,   Kylix   Windows  Wine.  ,   Borland    Delphi  Linux,   Wine  ,       Windows-   , Kylix   .  -,      Kylix      .




Develop


      KDE    Qt.    .  ,   MS Visual ++.      a2ps, Khexedit, KTranslator  ..     .




.2.8.      KDevelop




Glade


      GNOME.  ,    .        .    GNOME.




.2.9.      Glade




VDK Builder


   Borland Delphi/Borland  Builder,   Glade.     GNOME. VDK  ,    GNOME-,   ++.     .    .




Motor


   ,  ,  makefile,   gcc  gdb.  CVS.     .     RPM  .




Rhide


    DOS  Turbo Vision.  , ++, Assembler, Pascal  Fortran.   gdb    ,       Turbo Debugger.   ,    , .




SNiFF+ Penguin IDE


 ,    .     .          .  CVS  RCS.    ,       .          .   .    .    Windows NT/2000, Linux, Solaris    .




Code Forge


  .          (, ++, Assembler, Perl, GTK, TCL, TK, Tkl++, Python, Java, Basic, Fortran, Prolog, SGML, HTML  .).    ,     ( ++   ),  ,  ,  .     .




CodeWarrior


,    IDE,   EGCS/GNU.    , ,       .      , ,   .    .        .  .    Linux,    Java, Mac OS, Windows  Solaris.  ,      PlayStation, Palm OS, PowerPC, MIPS.




CRiSP


   X Window,    .     HomeSite.     ,   , .       Ada, , ++, SQL, HTML, Latex  .   FTP.    Windows, BSD, SGI.

 ,  ,     ,    .




-








   ,  , WAV  MIDI-, MPEG-3,    -CD.

      (    ), , .   ,  Red Hat        .    -  .     ISA  PCI-.           . ,      .         sndconfig.             WAV  MIDI-.

    .   KDE    (    CD-),     Windows.  ,       ,   , ,      GNOME.

  ,      ,  .   Linux   ,     .  ,   KDE  GNOME  ,          .




.2.10.  GMIX,   



KDE  GNOME       WAV-.      MPEG-3. -,  mpgl23   ,     .   MP3-   KDE  GNOME,   XI lamp (    Winamp  Windows)  KJukeBox.       MP3-   ,    ,     ,  ,        (   ).   Vorbis     .







    ,       TV-.      Linux,       USB TV-.    ,  ,   . -,  KDE       aKtion.   AVI, MPEG, Quick Time,   FLI/FLC-.   ( , , ),    ,        .   .     (  BMP   ).    .

  -CD    mtv  Xtheater.   ,        MPEG-4 (DivX),    Mplayer.

      Linux    .  ,     Miro,          .       .  ,    .







 , ,  .           .   -      .            .  Linux       , , , ,   .   ,       ,  ,         .           . -  -    Linux .      Sony Play Station, Nintendo  Windows.    Linux      .    ( ) -,   Linux    ,   (  Quake, Unreal).      Id Software  Linux-  .  Loki Entertaiment       Windows  Linux    .   ,       , ,  ,  Linux-      Windows.      FreeCiv  FreeCraft  ,        ,  , Linux    .







     , Linux        .        .   ,  Linux    ,       ,  .       OpenOffice 1, ,   Linux,    Windows.  ,    KDE  GNOME.       .   ,   ,   ,       Linux.  ,     Linux        Linux.







www.freshmeat.net (http://www.freshmeat.net/)  ,      Linux   .

www.openoffice.org (http://www.openoffice.org/)    OpenOffice.

www.sun.com (http://www.sun.com/)    Sun.

koffice.kde.org (http://www.koffice.kde.org/)    Koffice.

www.gnome.org/gnome-office (http://www.gnome.org/gnome-office)    GNOME-Office.

www.kdevelop.org (http://www.kdevelop.org/)    KDevelop.

www.codeforge.com (http://www.codeforge.com/)    Code Forge.

www.borland.com (http://www.borland.com/)     Borland,  Kylix.

www.gnome.org (http://www.gnome.org/)    GNOME.

www.kde.org (http://www.kde.org/)    KDE.

www.mozilla.org (http://www.mozilla.org/)    Mozilla.

www.opera.com (http://www.opera.com/)   - Opera.

www.xlmian.com (http://www.xlmian.com/)    Ximian,      GNOME,     Evolution.

www.linuxdocs.org (http://www.linuxdocs.org/)         Linux.

www.linux-ve.chat.ru (http://www.linux-ve.chat.ru/)   ,  Linux.

www.citforum.ru (http://www.citforum.ru/)       ,     Linux.

www.linux.org.ru (http://www.linux.org.ru/)      ,  Linux.

www.applix.com (http://www.applix.com/)   - Applixware.

www.mysql.org (http://www.mysql.org/)    MySQL.

www.interbase.com (http://www.interbase.com/)    Interbase.

www.idsoftware.com (http://www.idsoftware.com/)    Doom, Quake, Quake II, Quake III.

www.lokigames.com (http://www.lokigames.com/)   ,   Windows-  Linux.

www.linuxgames.org.ru (http://www.linuxgames.org.ru/)  ,    Linux.




 II

   Linux





 3

  .  



      ,      .   ,    .           .




  



    ,     ,      .          ,      :

    (OSI);

   TCP/IP.







         (. 3.1).


 3.1.   







    (OSI)


  1983      (International Organization for Standardization, ISO)      (Open System Interconnection, OSI).

    :

1.  (Physical Level).

2.  (Data Link Level).

3.  (Network Level).

4.  (Transport Level).

5.  (Session Level).

6.  (Presentation Level).

7.  (Application Level).

   ,             .

   OSI   ,  ,    ,   ,    .   ,      , ,         ,     :   ?  ? .  . 3.2      OSI.


 3.2.    OSI




        (. 3.3).


 3.3.     




    OSI            GOSIP (Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile,     ),      OSI    .    :

      ;

   ;

           ;

   TCP/IP      .

 ,  OSI   ,  ,   ,      .




   TCP/IP


   TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol,    / -)   ,       : ,   .

    ,    :

1.   (Network interface layer).

2.    [1 -  򻠖 ,     , , ,    . .] (Internet layer).

3.  (Host-to-host Layer).

4. / (Application/process layer).




   OSI  TCP/IP


 ,   TCP/IP    OSI.  . 3.4    TCP/IP   OSI.


 3.4.   TCP/IP   OSI




   ,      TCP/IP       OSI,      TCP/IP      OSI.




 



       ,     .




  TCP/IP


  TCP/IP   :

  (Internet Protocol  IP,  )   - TCP/IP.         ;

    (Internet Control Message Protocol, ICMP)      IP,    ,      ;

   (Address Resolution Protocol, ARP)        - (Media Access Control).    ;

   (User Datagram Protocol, UDP)         IP;

   (Transmission Control Protocol, TCP)    (      )    IP;

    (FTP, Telnet, IMAP, SMTP  .).

   TCP/IP   . 3.5.


 3.5.    TCP/IP







   ()


   ()       TCP/IP.   TCP/IP, ARP/RARP  ICMP.




 IP


  IP    1970-         ,     .        IP (       IPv4,     IPv6).        -      ,     IPv6,     ,  ,  IPv4.


  IPv4

 IP      .     :

   (VERS)    IP.     4      6;

   (HLEN)  IP.  4      ,   32- .      20  ( 32- ),                    (IP OPTIONS);

   (SERVICE TYPE)  1          .          (PRECEDENCE).      0 ( )  7 (  ).       ,    .   D (delay)   ,          ,       ,   R     ;

   (TOTAL LENGTH)  2            ;

   (IDENTIFICATION)  2      ,     .        ;

  (FLAGS)  3 ,       (  Do not Fragment, DF      ),    ,           (  More Fragments, MF    ,     );

   (FRAGMENT OFFSET)  13 ,                  ,  .   /             ;

   (TIME  LIVE)  1     ,        .              IP.                 ,        (    ).      ;

     (PROTOCOL)  1   ,       (,     TCP, UDP  RIP);

   (HEADER CHECKSUM)  2 ,     ;

   (SOURCE IP ADDRESS)    (DESTINATION IP ADDRESS)     32    ;

  (IP OPTIONS)         .      ,          .        ,                32- .

       ,   ,   65 535 ,                  ,  IP-.          ,      ,        IP.         MTU (Maximum Transfer Unit).  ,  Ethernet   MTU,  1500 ,  FDDI  4096 .

IP-        ,      ,   .    ,           .

        ,           .       ,         ,   ,   ,    ICMP    .


 IPv6

 , -   IPv6:

 IPv4    1970-            .          ,        ;

 ,         (, ).       , ..             .         .   IPv4          ;

   .            ,    IP   . ,      ,     .

     IP  ,   IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force,     ).   IETF  IPv6     IPv4.      ,  ,       (          ,     )   . ,     IPv6     IPv4.       :

   .        IPv6  IPv4.  6  128-  (16 );

  .        (   ), IPv6           ;

   ;

  .                   ,     .


  IPv6

  IPv6   128   16 .  6      4    :

Unicast   .        .        ;

Cluster   .   ,      (,     ).         ,         (,  );

Multicast    ,        .                ,   .

    IPv4,    IPv6   ,        .

      .       ,     ,  Provider-Assigned Unicast.

       IPv4,   IPv6   ,  0000 0000    .  4        IPv4. ,    ,        ,   IPv4,  ,   IPv6,  .




 


  ,        . ,         .            ..   ,      ,        .      ,    .


 

      .     ,    ,   ,     .  ,        .             .  ,         .


 

       (Interior Gateway Protocol, IGP)     (Exterior Gateway Protocol, EGP).

            ,   " ".       ,    ,       .

        .

       :

RIP (Routing Information Protocol)   .  .   ,      routed,        UNIX-;

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)    .   .       .  ,   RIP,        ;

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)    .   CISCO.   ,    ;

EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)   .     .    BGP;

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)   . ,    EGP,    .      ;

DVMRP (Vector Multicast Routing Protocol)      ;

RIP, OSPF  IGRP   ; EGP  BGP   .


  TCP/IP

    IP    :

1.  ,   (, Ethernet),      ,     .  ,       - (Media Access Control)  . -      ()  , ..  ,    Ethernet-     -.       -  6- :  3    -,   3      .

IP-adpec,   4  ( IPv4)  16  ( IPv6).      .       . IP-    :     .               (Network Information Center, NIC),        .

 -, , tosser.mail.ru.         , ,  ,  ,  .  -    , ,   FTP.

IP-    :     .          .      , ,   ,    ( ,          IP-).  IP-     (     ),  .  , 192.168.44.2.           .    0.0.0.0, 127.0.0.1, 255.255.255.255   .      (. 3.6).


 3.6.      




*         ,       .



 IP-      InterNIC,     45 IP-,       -.         .   ,       .   :

10.0.0.0-10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0-172.31.255.255

192.168.0.0-192.168.255.255

  ,    ,    .

 IP-   :

,      ,     . , 0.0.0.145    145   ,   0.0.0.0   ;

   127...    ,            .  127.0.0.1         localhost;

,   -   255,   . , ,    192.168.3.255,       192.168.3,  ,    255.255.255.255,     .

     :

_.3.2.1

: www.rambler.ru (http://www.rambler.ru/), www.yahoo.com (http://www.yahoo.com/), www.fklan.com.ua (http://www.fklan.com.ua/).

            . ,       ,      ,       .  ,        com, org, net, mil    ,    : ru  ,   , uk  .        .      com        .       .  ,         -k , exler.ru,              (odessa.ua),    com, org, net, mil.         , ,        ,  , ,   .




  ARP/RARP


   ,   IP-    IP-,           - (,   ,     -).     - IP-   ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)   .      ,   . ARP       .         ,     ,    - .       ARP,    .

      IP-.     RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol,    ).




 ICMP


 ICMP      (Internet Control Message Protocol)      IP,    ,      .  -      .




  



      IP.       TCP  UDP.             .      ,     (port number),  ,      .     .      ,   RFC1700 (Request For Comments,   .         ).      . 3.7.


 3.7.      







 TCP


 TCP             .          .

 TCP   ,    :

                    .             ;

   .                ;

   ;

   .

   ,   TCP,       .   ,         .




 UDP


 UDP            .   ,    UDP,     ,        .            .  ,   ,       .      UDP        ,     TCP.

     ,   U DP:

 DNS;

,     NTP;

,     .

    ,        (  ,      )   .         TCP.




  



,     .  ,    ,    ,       .     ,    RFC.                 ( TCP),        (   UDP).             ( ,  SMTP, HTTP),     .




 FTP


  .      .     ,  ,   ..      .     FTP  TFTP,     , ,  ,        .




 SMTP


    .     .  ,       ,     telnet   25-  (SMTP)      .




 Telnet


      .  ,                 ( ,    ..). ,  ,    .      , ..      ( )      .     SSH.




   NFS


,   Sun,            .   ,        ,    ,   ,      .    NFS    ,          ,  NFS     .




 IPX


IPX (Internet Packet Exchange)     ,   Novell     NetWare.        ,  Novell     TCP/IP,      TCP/IP     NetWare.   ,  IPX    .

 IPX      IDP (Internet Datagram Protocol),   -  Xerox.  IPX       .   IPX     ,   :

   RIP;

    SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange),  ;

 Echo;

   ;

   PEP (Packet Exchange Protocol);

   SAP (Service Advertisement Protocol).

    Linux (Mars),    NetWare,   ,     NetWare.      Linux,    IPX.




 AppleTalk


 AppleTalk     Apple. ,   Apple,    .    Linux    ,      Apple.




 NetBIOS


,   Microsoft   .




 DECnet


    DEC.     Linux   .  ,      .




  


    ,   RFC (Request For Comments).  . 3.8   .


 3.8.    










www.rfc-editor.org (http://www.rfc-editor.org/)  ,  RFC.

Man- (  )arp  ,   ARP-.




 4

  



       .   , ,       .       ,            (, FAT 16/FAT 32).      ,    Linux.




    Linux


 Linux      Minix,        ,  ,          (     ,       ).    ( 1990-,    386-   ,        120 )   Minix   .     (  16-,         64 ,      ,      14 )         .   Extended File System (Ext FS    ),       Second Extended File System (Ext2FS     ).         Ext3    .       : ReiserFS ( de-facto        Linux)  JFS   IBM.   ,        Linux    .         ReiserFS.           JFS.      :  IBM, ,    . ,  .








     Linux   .   ,   ,             .    Linux   ,  ,           .      .




 


        (  ,  ,   ..),      .  Linux    :

;

;

 ;

 (FIFO, PIPE);

 (link).

 (Socket).




    .       .       .




    .       .    ,   .         .   .  .   Ext2.


 

   Linux       .        .     :   .

             .

         .     ,    .




          .




        .   ,  ,    .       ,        ,      .          ,      .            .

      ,   .      .         ,      ,     .        ,   .




     .       TCP/IP.




 


  Linux      ,    .    ,       ,     .             Linux.

    (  )     /  /  ,    .               ,        .

 ,             (   )   .                    ( root).        chmod.




   


          ,        ,    ,     .            .       ( ) ,      .      ,    .  ,    ,   644, ,       ,       .

,   ,         .

:

   ;

  .

:

    ;

      .

:

  ;

        .

  ,        , ,   ls.      Is -l




       ,      ,      ,       ,             .         test ( 1    ,    ,  ).        t ( d    ,    (directory),   ).     .       .      (, ,   ..).        : rwx  , ,  .  , ,       .




  


   ,        .      :

Sticky bit (Save Text Attribute)   ;

SUID (Set User ID)   ;

SGID    .

   .

Sticky bit  .       .

Sticky bit  .  sticky bit   ,  ,   ,       ,     ,            .

SUID  .     SUID   ,          ,  ,    .     ,        ,      .  ,  ,           passwd,    (    root)     SUID,      (/etc/passwd),        root.

SGID  .     SGID,      SUID,       .

SGID  .    SGID   ,    ,      ,   .

  ,         , ,   is.     Is -l



-r-s 1 root root 13536  12 2000 passwd



    ,     SUID- ( s    ).




 



       ,             .

            ,    ,          .       (    ,    ).

     Linux (     UNIX-) :

;

  (inode);

 ;

 ;

 ;

.

  .  .   Ext2.




  


Linux      .      .

Minix    ,     (     ,     30- )    ( 64     ).

Xia     minix,           .

Ext     Ext2.      .

Ext2        Linux.       .       .

Ext3     Ext2.      .     .      ReiserFS.

VFS    .    -     (MS-DOS, Ext2, xia  ..)     Linux.

  - ,                .

ReiserFS    .        Linux.

   Linux             .            ,     UNIX.

msdos      MS-DOS.

umsdos       MS-DOS  Linux  ,   Linux        ,     , ,  ,   ,      .    ()   Linux    MS-DOS.

iso9660      CD-ROM.

xenix    Xenix.

sysv    System V (  86).

hpfs   "  "  HPFS.

nfs    ,                 .

 . 4.1      ,    .


 4.1.   







  


      mkfs.          .  mkfs         .

  ,  mkfs,       .      mkfs      man (  ).           ,               .




    


      -      ,    ,      .   ,   ,  :

1.-              .

2.        .

       .                 .    " "    ( )   ( ,  Zip 100  Zip250),       ,  ,      .           " "   ( ),             .   ,         .

    (  UNIX)            .    Linux        .   . . 5.

    Linux     , ,    DOS/Windows,      ,  .    ( )         ,      . ,        - ,       ,       .   /    mount umount.

 mount   ,      .      ,    ,     ,    (   CD-ROM, floppy).     ,     . , mount /dev/hda1 /mnt.

         (         ),  ,         .

   /etc/fstab,        .         .     ,    ,    .

        ,   .           CD-ROM (     ).     umount.         . , umount /dev/hda1 umount /mnt/floppy.

          .   Linux     ,    ,        ,           .

          root.          .      :

 KDE  GNOME     CD-ROM  ;

      root, /    ;

  sudo,  ,    ,   mount;

  mtools,       MS-DOS;

   ,      ,         (  )   /etc/fstab.




   


        .       .         (  Reset,   )    .          fsck.      ,      (   )    .

            ,       .    Ext2   ,   ,            .        ,   /etc/fastboot.

      ,    .      fsck   .

 fsck  ,    ,                     .

 fsck       (    ,      read-only), ..        ,     -         , , ,     .

     badblocks.           .       fsck       .




   (VFS)


,         .


 

  Linux     -,     .                 /.               .

      (  ,   ).    ,    ( )   .      ,      . ,   ,      .   ,        ,         ,    .           ,   ,     .


 VFS

     ,       (, ,  ,     ).     ,     :  ,     .

    ,              .               .           ,       /.

       :   ,       ,  ,   .   ,     ,        ,     .

        :      .     ,       ,   .      ,    ,        ,     .




  Ext2


  Ext2 (The Second Extended File System,    )      ,     Ext (Extended File System),     .


  Ext2

  Ext2     UNIX:

;

;

 ;

 .

Ext2    ,      .         255 . Ext2       root,              .


  Ext2

   Ext2     .        ,      .

Ext2         .      1024, 2048  4096 .         /,       .

Ext2     .         .        ,     .           .         60 .

Ext2          .       read/write,      Not Clean.          read-only,      Clean.                  .        .    -      Erroneous.

         ,  Ext2         .      .     ,      read/write.       (    ),      ,      Clean.       ,     .          .

  Ext2     . ,  tune2fs        .        :

 ;

      read-only;

     .

 ,    :

     ;

     ;

  ,    root.


  Ext2

     ,  Ext2   .    (primary,    Fdisk  Microsoft)       ,        .         .     1, 2  4 .        (       ).      .

,   ,    .      .     (.4.1).




.4.1.   



 (Superblock)    (Group Descriptors)    (Block Bitmap)     (Inode Bitmap)    (Inode Table)  

    ,        .        ,     ,   1024      1024     .         .

          .      ,     ,   .        ,          ,    ,      .       :




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/aleksey-stahnov/linux/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



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