   .  ,     (19171953 .)
 


   / Contemporary Western Rusistika
            .             ,            .           ,                 .                ,       .

  PDF A4    .





 

   .  ,     (19171953.)


 



Julie Hessler

Social History of Soviet Trade

Trade policy, retail practices, and consumption, 1917-1953



Princeton University Press

2004



    ,  








 Julie Hessler, text, 2007

 Stanford University Press, 2007

 . ,   , 2021

 . ,   , 2021

 Academic Studies Press, 2022

   ,  , 2022







       ,     ?    ,         ,                 , ,     .        ,  ,      .         ,       :      ,             .        :         , ,   ,          ,     .        ,             ,   ;    :     ,     ,    .          ,            ,             ,     .     ,   ,       ,      ,  ,  -              ,   ,         .    ,    1990-  ,        ,               .       ,                     ,      , ,  ,    ?

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   ,     .      ,      ,   ,     .    ,         1917  1953 .    , ,      1980-,            .   ,     1996 ,    ,  .        ,      . ,               ,     ,   ;           ,        .

        , , .         19911992       ,         ,   19921993               (IREX).       (     )             . ,     ,   ,            ,           .     -          , a IREX    .  ,            1999/2000         ( -).        ,  ,         ,                   .

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    ,    .       ,   , ,        .    .             ,        URL: http://darkwing.uoregon. edu/~hessler ( : 24.06.2021).       : () :      ; () -:     ; ()    ; ()         ;  ()    .

            :       (,   )     ,            ;  ,     ,        ,          ;      ;          ,       Europe-Asia Studies,     ,    ,          ;    ,           .   ,    ,      .



.,  2002.








 ,    1940-    .   ,           ,          ,                 .        ,       ,     .              ,             .                   ,    .                  ,     :     ,             ,  , ,       .

     !    񻠖  .  ,   ,      ,      ,      1950-  1960- .                 , ,     .   ,              .              .         ,    .       ,       - .        [1 -    .  [Berend 1996].]. ,       ,   ,       .    ,            .

 ,   1950-  1960- ,      ,     .          ,         [2 -   ,   ,     RAND Corporation,  ,    . .,  , [Bergson 1961; Chapman 1963].].       ,     ,    ,      ,     ,    ,     .             ,          .            ,      :     ,     ,       ,  .

  1950-1960- ,         ,        [3 -    ,      ,   [ 1969;  1959;  1964]    . . .].  ,            ,                 ,                 .   , ,        (  )     ,     .     ,   ,      ,       ,     -   ,    ,     ..                    ,        .

    .           ,        .  ,    ,    1970-1980-      [4 -         , ,              .    . [Davies et al. 1994; Harrison 1921;  1996;  1997;  2000]. ,     ,  .].  ,                    .         RAND,        :                 ,         ,       ,    .      ,    ,        .           ,         ,         :   -        ?            ?[5 -    . .  (R. W. Davies. The Archives and the Stalinist Economy),    3031  2002    ()  Reappraising the Stalin Era (  ).     ,     : Crisis and Progress in the Soviet Economy, 19311933 (London, 1996); The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, 19291930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); ,   . X. , Foundations of a Planned Economy, 19261929 (London, 1969).]

       ,            .              [6 -   . [Lewin 1985].      1968  1978 .].                 ,      ,           [Andrle 1988].                 ,           [Swianiewicz 1965].      ,        ,           .    ,      ,      ,     ( ,    ),    ,  -     .   ,      ,              ,      ,       ,      .              , ,      ,      ,         [ 2000].   (, ,      )    , ,               ,     .

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        .   ,      ,            (     ),        19211922, 19321933  19461947 .          , ,   ,        .       ,        ,     19171922, 19281933  19391947  (        ),   ,  ,     .  1950-      :              .

             .        ,          .       ,     ,     ,            ,     .                                .           ,            ,                , ..          .     ,   .            ,              ,                        .          ,         [7 - . [Wildt 1986]  [Wyka 1992: 2361].].  :    ,      ,      ,      ,    .

        ,     :         ,    .  1921, 19311932  19461947     ,    .               .  ,  ,        ,  ,             ,      ,        .   ,        ,   ,           [8 -       ,    .     1921     [ 2000].   19311932  . [Whitman 1956: 384404, . 387; Davies 1996: . 5864,94-97,201-28].    19461947  . [Filtzer 1999:10131038; . 10201022;  1996: 5152;  1998: 4050].].  , , ,         ,       , ,      [9 -   1921  . [ 1986;  1963: 139152;  1969: 173191],   19311932. [ 1969: 248261].].  ,         ,       .   ,     ,           .            ,        ,  . .  , ,  ,      ,   ,     .           :          ,        ,    .

      ,           .    ,            ,   .                  .   , ,     1920- , ,        19301931 ,    ,     :      ,     .  ,    1920- ,            ,         .            , ,          .   ,     ,  ,    1930-   - ,    [Shearer 1996: 236]. ,        ,           .        (       )       .   ,   19351938  19481953 ,    1921-1928-       ,         ,   ,   ,        .

 , ,       :          .                 ,           , ,   .        :         , ,   ,          ,        ,     .         , -      ,       [10 -         . .       [ 1926: 7596].].        ,      .           ,   .  ,    ,         1930- ,      ,           .

,  :   1917  1953             ,         .        :      ,   ,    ,    ,            ,      ,     .  ,     ,         ,               ,    ,                ,          .     ,     ,   ,            .         ;  ,      ,            . ,        ,      ,       ,  ,                  .            :           ,             .




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              .     ,         .      ,      ,        ,       ,    . ,  1939     46% ,           .           ,     ,           ,   ,      .     ,     (      ,   - ,     - ),           ,           .        30%      .          ,   ,      ,    ,    .  ,         ,   .           ,        ,                        .

            ;       ,   ,      ,   ,           ,    .     ,           ,   1920-       ,       .            :             ,                  1930 [11 -   19451948 ,                . .      Postwar Perestroika? Toward  History of Private Enterprise in the USSR [Hessler 1998].].           , ,    ,       .          ,                .          ,         ,    ,        .         :                       ,        .

           [12 -        (Mervyn Matthews) Poverty in the Soviet Union   ,     ,              . ,      .].   ,           ,  ,     .      ,   (     )        ,    [13 -       Culture of Shortages: A social history of Soviet Trade ( , 1996).].            ,        ,     .                ,  ,      ,   [14 -      :         ,                 .].               ,    ,     .           .  ,  ,       ,         .       ,             ,    .

  ,    , , ,        .           :             ,    ,      ,           [15 - . [Sen 1981: 5557]  [ 2003].].          ,      .        ,     ;      ; ,   ,      ,     ;         .         ,   .            ,       ,          ,             (   )        ,     .    ,     ,         .          ,   ,         :    .

                 . ,         ,           . ,      ,            ,    ;       .    ,   1920-,   1930-     1948            ,     .   ,      :            ,        ,       [16 -                 .         , ., , [Campbell 1987; Williams 1982; Leach 1993].].                . ,    ,           .     ,        ;     ,     19211930       19451948 .   1930-                  .

           ,   -     .         ,        .        1923,19361938  1949 ,    ,    ,      ,    .         .           ,      ,   ,       .     ,       ,  -   .     ,         ,   .                        ,           [17 -  ,            ,     . . [ 1991]  [ 1990: . 3-24].].

    ,    ,   ,         .      :          ,   ,         .        :   1920-   1940-      ,              .         ,    [18 -            1931 , .    Women Workers and the Gendering of Soviet Trade,   2000          (American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies)  .       ,           .].   ,               [19 -      ,        [Benson 1986; Lancaster 1995:171194; Jefferys, Knee 1962: 1921].].               ,            ,     ,   ,   ,           .       ,        ,    ,   ,     .                   ,    ,     ( )     ( )    .

             1960- .      . .   . .  [ 1964;  1960;  1961;  1965].           .      ,        ,     (   ,    ,     ,         ).  ,      ,         ,       ,   .          ,  ,        ;     ,    -    ,     ;        ,           .              :  ,  ,        ,           ,         .      ,       ,       .   , ,     ,    ,            .

           ,       ,        ,   ,        ,          1927  1941 [20 -         [ 1998].          Our Daily Bread: Socialist Distribution and the Art of Survival in Stalins Russia       (, -, 2000).        .        [ 1993];     [ 1995];        19391941. [ 19956].].       ,    (         )   :     ,    ,        ,        .       1930-    .        ,          ;       ,    ; ,         .         :    ,    ,      .   , ,  ,        ,     ,   .  ,                       ,      .  ,       ,     ,                  ,     .

 ,   ,  . . ,       .    13,      ,     ,      [ 1966;  19666;  1971;  1986;   . 1978].               ,       ,                .           ,    ,        .

                 .                 .         .   , ,    .            ,   ,    .                       .




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  ,   -  ,         ,   , .        ,   ,   ,   ,  ,        19141917.,     ,    .

. . .      (1925)




 

     



  19161922          .     ,      ,   ,     .    ,         ,         ,       .       ,      .

                ,         .           ,   ,    ,        .                 .  ,       (,   ,   19181921 ),     .

,     ,       ,       ,          .     ,               ,     ,     .

,    -,  . .    ,     ,    . ,      ?       ,           ,  ,      ?                   ? ,               ,      ,    ,  ?                     .




      


             .       (   magasin),       .      1870- ,    XX       .         .  1912               ,     ,        ,   ,        ,    -  .  ,  ,    ,  ,     .    12%   .                  ,      .            ,                . , ,         ,           [ 1960: 6892;  1958: 672687].

        ,   ,        .      ,  , ,       .     ,     ,   ,     .           .            . ,         ,



          ,            ,       ,       [Gohstand 1973: 37].


,      ,            .

      .           ,          -,             :         ,      .       ,       :         ,           .            (    ):         ,        ,               ,     [Carstensen 1984: 69][21 - .  [Ruane 1995: 765782; West 1998: 345363].].       ,           .

             .      40     ,      ;      ,                [22 -    . [Christian, Smith 1984: 327356; Fitzpatrick 1990].].            :             ( ,      ),    ,        ,          [ 1960: 9294][23 -  ,  ,     ,   1895       637  . . [Denecke, Shaw 1992: 83].].                 , ,  .        -         ,               .              ,    ,    ,  ,          (       ) [ 1960: 9294;  1966: 308].

      .      1914               [24 - . [ 1998: 234236].].     ,      ,           ,    .               ,   .   1916          ,        .  ,   ,     ,      . ,      ,    [25 - . 1917. 4. .           ,   .].            ,  ,   ,  .        ,           .   1917        :    ,    ,   ,      .             [26 - . 1917. 2, 3, 5, 13  14 ., 1, 8  13 .          , . [David 1945: 89]  [Smithies 1984: 1937].].

             19161917    ,             ,   .     XIX ,       .                  ,   ,  -      .   1917      ,      ,        -  [27 - . 1917. 2, 4, 5,  17 ., 1 .]. ,   ,   ,         [28 -  . 3.].       :           .  ,   1917  ,   ,   ,              ,      ,  [29 -  . 1.].

         .   1915            ,                 .  (  1916 )           (  1916 )    ,           .     ,       ,              .   ,         :      ( 1917)     ( 1918)      .             .        ,          .          1917            [30 - . [Lih 1990;  1991 [1922]; Malle 1985: 322395], .           ( , 1919. . 1.    [   1919]).].         ,      ,         .

            19171918 ,     .  ,  ,     ,   , -,      .             12 .  ,                ,              [ 1967: 249251;  1991 [1922]: 142143][31 -        . [ 1929: 124;  1986: 16].].     1917  -       ,      ,    ,    [32 -      [Pethybridge 1972: 1-56].].    ,         ,     , ,     ( )      [33 - . [Wheatcroft 19811982];  . [     1972: 71-280 passim].].     ,  ,    ,         ,        .

          ,    .                  ,         ,        .                 ,         ,         ,         , , , , ,  ,   . [  19171924 (1917), 1: 6].        ,       ,    .    ,     ,              ;        ,                [34 - ., , . . 303. . 4. . 23. . 2122; . 24. . 133, 177; . 23.. 34; . 34. . 13; . . 5. . 1. . 2615. . 4-20.].         ,    .     1918                  ,        [35 - . . 130. . 1. .44..4447.].

    19171918        .   ,         .   ,        ,         ,         1918  [ 19581965,34: 310311;  19581965, 36: 137142;   19171924 (1918), 23: 326][36 - .  [ 1966: 293, 321 passim].].    ,          ,      .        .  ,   ,     :       426       40% .            ,                [ 1966: 294].

       1918      :        .       13   ,     ,            [37 -        ,      [   1919: 3334].].                      (21 )           (26 ).    21        -     ;              ,   [   1919: 3539].             ()  ,        ()  [38 -       . [ 1940: 71;  1966: 304305, 311],  : . . 130. . 2. . 2. . 304,312314.].        ,     ()     [   1919: 3539].      ,    ,         : , , , , , ,  , , , , ,  ,            [ : 202].

  21      ,          .        ,        ,    .         ,        .        ,  7  1918 , ,        :       . ,   :                 (      );      ,      .            ,        ,     [39 -  . 1918. 7.].      ,       : ,  , ,       1918  ,        ,    ,     ,         .     18 ,   - :         ,   -  ,          [ 1966: 309310].    ,               .      . . ,          ,      1918         [ 1925: 36].




  


 ,     ,     .  ,          ,          ,      .      -  ,      ;                 .     ,      .      .   ,             1919 ,  :



    ,  ,   ,  .          ,    .    -,           .     ,     .        ,            .     ,       .        .               ,      [40 - . . 130. . 3. . 1296. . 8-11.].


       ,    ,    ,    ,    ,     .  ,      ;    - ,   .  ,     ,          : ,   ,    ,  .  .    ,      ,     :        ,  ,     ,        ,           .  ,   ,                 [Harrison 1921: 2930].

      ,            .     ,                .      -     ,   1922 :          ,  ,   ,     .      . . ,     .  1918                   ,   .        .            ,   ,         1922  [ 1923: 4447].      .   ,   (,      )    ,    19181921 ,            .      ,       ,        ,     .

          ,           .         ; ,       ,



 ,    ,       .    ,         .         ,        [ 1918: 5].


         : / , ,     .      ,          (),    1920      :   !       ,     ,   ,     ,   ?  ,   ,        ,     ,    ,   ,   [  1998: 5657].         ,   .

         1919 ,          1918 .             ,        ,   .               : ,    ,   ,     [41 - . .      :     . 1918. 8. .2327; [ 1918: 353355] ( ,  ),   [,  1966 [1919]: 323],  . 1920. 18 .].          ,  ,    . .          (  !) [ 1997:321][42 - .  [Harrison 1921:150157; Chase 1987:2627; Borrero 2003:171175].].  ,   ,               , ,     .         ,              (.1).      ,         ,   ,   .  ,     ,     ,     ,        .     ,     .  1919          .    ,      ,       ,  ,       [43 - . 1919.14. . : [ 19666:232; Borrero2003:177].].








.1.       ().       ()



    .       ,      .            :             .         ,   :



     -   , ,      ,        ,  .           ,   ;   , - ,   ,    , , ,    ,         ,          [ 1925: 137138].


   ,        . ,              ,     :     400 ,   ,      (  ,         , ,   ..),      [44 - . . 130. . 3. . 415. . 9506.      .  [McAuley 1991: 282].].     .       ,     ,       , ,   ,                 [ 1925: 3738;  1966: 320321;  19581965, 37: 422423].         ,                .

       ,            [ 1925: 38].       ,     ,       ,  ,  ,    ,         ,   ,     .        ,    ,   ,     [45 - . . 393. . 4. . 34. . 30. . :  . 1918. 26 .].  ,    ,  ,    ,     .       1920 ,   , 



  ,    ,    .  ,     ,         ;          ,        [46 - . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 3234. .    [ I      1918: 433434],   [ 1920: 9-11, 21;  1918;  1925: 137138]     [  . 19982000, 1].].


          ,  .        ,    ,          [  8 (4): 155].              .       ,    ,      .  ,        .       ,    1920   , 84%          . ,       ,        [47 -   1919     18 000   ,   13 000      ,  5000     (          ).      1920    ,        3736   44   [ 1966: 315;  1986: 166;   8 (7): 3233].].

   -      1917  1921 ?       . X.   ,                   [Carr 1952, 2: 244].          : ,     .  1918               ,   1920      [  8 (2): 354].    ,   ,   19201921        ,   19171918 ,     ,   19181919  [Banerji 1997: 206;  1940: 84;  19666: 228].               .  ,         59%1918     25%  1920 ;          ,      [ 1925: 133135][48 - .  [  8 (1): 1617, 2425]  [  30 (1): 3435].].   ,          ,         ,   [ 19666:230231;  1925: 133135].

         ,   .    ,  1918  ,      ,           .        .      (   )    19191920   ,     .  -  ,      ,     [49 -    . .  [ 1925: 36]. . : . . 130. . 3. . 414. . 3940; . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 8-10.].     -         1920 ,   ,           ,         ,        .             .         ,               [50 - ., , [ 1989: 8587].      ,  ,   ; . . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 8-10, 3234; . 2458.].

        ,      .     -    :           ,        ,        [ 1997: 314].                1918 .          1920 ,  , ,      .            :



,       ,     ,   ,       .          .        ,  ,    .      ,   ,   . ,    1921 ,   ,   ,   ,    .          ,     ,   ,     [Harrison 1921: 154][51 - .  [Borrero 2003: 185].].


      :       ,              .   1918        ( ,     )      .      ,    ,         .

 ,        .                    .   ,            ,    .       :       ,      .  , ,     ,        ,  ,  ,    .         ,   ,   ,  ,      ,   :        .     ,               .

            ,     .            ,        1919        .                              .        ,            .         .  -         . ,   ,      1921 ,          .      ,   , , ,  , ,        ,    [52 - . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 8-10, 3234; . 2368. .  [Ackerman 1919: 46;  1994: 45].].

        ,               ,     .        ,   - ,  ,     .     19161917     ,           .             .   1917 ,      [53 - . [Browder, Kerensky 1961,2: 703;    1919: 122123].],    .        : ,   19171918 , ,  40%     80%          ;  30 000          .   ,  , , , ,    ,    ,     100 000  150 000 .  , ,        ,     1921      ,    160-   20 000         (130,6)  [ 1991 [1922]: 308;  1925: 135;  1940: 78;  19666: 236; Figes 1996: 611; Banerji, 1997: 27].

              .   1918 ,  -         ,    ,         .     1918 ,              ( 200300   ).                 ;           [ 1940: 78].              ,         .

          ,          ,   .     .     ,         ,    [54 - . . 130. . 3. . 414. . 1506; . 415. . 9506; , . 5. On. 1. . 2618. . 8-10, 3234.].     ,          ,           ,     .        (),                  -.   ,      150- (80-)      ,  .           ,  ,          .   1919    ,        ,      ,       [55 - . . 393. . 1. . 37. . 34; . . 5. . 1. . 2615. . 4-20.].

  ,      ,      .      .        1920 ,     ,         .      :  1920   ( 16,4 ) ,     800900 ,         30  40  .             ,        . ,            .        ,     :            . ,          ,        [56 -  . 1920.25 . . : . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 3234; [Schwartz 1921: 127128].].

    ?               .  ,             .     ,  ,   ,       ,    ,  ,   .      ,        .

          .   1918     1919  ,   ,   25%  ,        ;            .   1919/1920      10%          [ 1965: 130;  1940: 79, 84;  19666: 231].   ,   . .   1925 ,



       ,    ,     ,     . ,            . ,  ,  .  ,   ,    ,     ,        [ 1925: 41].


          .   ,  ,   , ,      .        :    ,         ( ,  ),   ,          .   , ,     ,   ,     ,     ,   ,    .

  ,   ,    ,        ,      . . ,           [ 1991 [1922]: 307310].             - ,           ,     .

         . . .      , ,   ,   ,      [ 1925: 142]. . .  ,           :             [ 1925: 22]. ,        :              [57 -         1571    XIX  .  [Patouillet 1912: 99-100].].             :   ,  ,    ,  ,    ,         .




  


   ,    ,        .    1917            ,       .     ,      .      ,    ;     ,     .                ,        .         ,    .   ,             :         1920-  ,          ,     .  ,            3040   ,    ,            .  ,           ,  , ,           [58 - . [ 1967: 249250; Hasegawa 1981: 198202;  1987:103104; Figes 1996: 307].    . [ 1928: 149156].]




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/pages/biblio_book/?art=68362120)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


   .  [Berend 1996].




2


  ,   ,     RAND Corporation,  ,    . .,  , [Bergson 1961; Chapman 1963].




3


   ,      ,   [ 1969;  1959;  1964]    . . .




4


        , ,              .    . [Davies et al. 1994; Harrison 1921;  1996;  1997;  2000]. ,     ,  .




5


   . .  (R. W. Davies. The Archives and the Stalinist Economy),    3031  2002    ()  Reappraising the Stalin Era (  ).     ,     : Crisis and Progress in the Soviet Economy, 19311933 (London, 1996); The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, 19291930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); ,   . X. , Foundations of a Planned Economy, 19261929 (London, 1969).




6


  . [Lewin 1985].      1968  1978 .




7


. [Wildt 1986]  [Wyka 1992: 2361].




8


      ,    .     1921     [ 2000].   19311932  . [Whitman 1956: 384404, . 387; Davies 1996: . 5864,94-97,201-28].    19461947  . [Filtzer 1999:10131038; . 10201022;  1996: 5152;  1998: 4050].




9


  1921  . [ 1986;  1963: 139152;  1969: 173191],   19311932. [ 1969: 248261].




10


        . .       [ 1926: 7596].




11


  19451948 ,                . .      Postwar Perestroika? Toward  History of Private Enterprise in the USSR [Hessler 1998].




12


       (Mervyn Matthews) Poverty in the Soviet Union   ,     ,              . ,      .




13


      Culture of Shortages: A social history of Soviet Trade ( , 1996).




14


     :         ,                 .




15


. [Sen 1981: 5557]  [ 2003].




16


                .         , ., , [Campbell 1987; Williams 1982; Leach 1993].




17


 ,            ,     . . [ 1991]  [ 1990: . 3-24].




18


           1931 , .    Women Workers and the Gendering of Soviet Trade,   2000          (American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies)  .       ,           .




19


     ,        [Benson 1986; Lancaster 1995:171194; Jefferys, Knee 1962: 1921].




20


        [ 1998].          Our Daily Bread: Socialist Distribution and the Art of Survival in Stalins Russia       (, -, 2000).        .        [ 1993];     [ 1995];        19391941. [ 19956].




21


.  [Ruane 1995: 765782; West 1998: 345363].




22


   . [Christian, Smith 1984: 327356; Fitzpatrick 1990].




23


 ,  ,     ,   1895       637  . . [Denecke, Shaw 1992: 83].




24


. [ 1998: 234236].




25


. 1917. 4. .           ,   .




26


. 1917. 2, 3, 5, 13  14 ., 1, 8  13 .          , . [David 1945: 89]  [Smithies 1984: 1937].




27


. 1917. 2, 4, 5,  17 ., 1 .




28


 . 3.




29


 . 1.




30


. [Lih 1990;  1991 [1922]; Malle 1985: 322395], .           ( , 1919. . 1.    [   1919]).




31


       . [ 1929: 124;  1986: 16].




32


     [Pethybridge 1972: 1-56].




33


. [Wheatcroft 19811982];  . [     1972: 71-280 passim].




34


., , . . 303. . 4. . 23. . 2122; . 24. . 133, 177; . 23.

. 34; . 34. . 13; . . 5. . 1. . 2615. . 4-20.




35


. . 130. . 1. .44..4447.




36


.  [ 1966: 293, 321 passim].




37


       ,      [   1919: 3334].




38


      . [ 1940: 71;  1966: 304305, 311],  : . . 130. . 2. . 2. . 304,312314.




39


 . 1918. 7.




40


. . 130. . 3. . 1296. . 8-11.




41


. .      :     . 1918. 8. .2327; [ 1918: 353355] ( ,  ),   [,  1966 [1919]: 323],  . 1920. 18 .




42


.  [Harrison 1921:150157; Chase 1987:2627; Borrero 2003:171175].




43


. 1919.14. . : [ 19666:232; Borrero2003:177].




44


. . 130. . 3. . 415. . 9506.      .  [McAuley 1991: 282].




45


. . 393. . 4. . 34. . 30. . :  . 1918. 26 .




46


. . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 3234. .    [ I      1918: 433434],   [ 1920: 9-11, 21;  1918;  1925: 137138]     [  . 19982000, 1].




47


  1919     18 000   ,   13 000      ,  5000     (          ).      1920    ,        3736   44   [ 1966: 315;  1986: 166;   8 (7): 3233].




48


.  [  8 (1): 1617, 2425]  [  30 (1): 3435].




49


   . .  [ 1925: 36]. . : . . 130. . 3. . 414. . 3940; . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 8-10.




50


., , [ 1989: 8587].      ,  ,   ; . . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 8-10, 3234; . 2458.




51


.  [Borrero 2003: 185].




52


. . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 8-10, 3234; . 2368. .  [Ackerman 1919: 46;  1994: 45].




53


. [Browder, Kerensky 1961,2: 703;    1919: 122123].




54


. . 130. . 3. . 414. . 1506; . 415. . 9506; , . 5. On. 1. . 2618. . 8-10, 3234.




55


. . 393. . 1. . 37. . 34; . . 5. . 1. . 2615. . 4-20.




56


 . 1920.25 . . : . . 5. . 1. . 2618. . 3234; [Schwartz 1921: 127128].




57


        1571    XIX  .  [Patouillet 1912: 99-100].




58


. [ 1967: 249250; Hasegawa 1981: 198202;  1987:103104; Figes 1996: 307].    . [ 1928: 149156].


