  
 


 ()
         ,      ,         .        ,                :      ,   ,    ,   ,  ,       . .       ,     .

         .           ,        .     ,  ,     ,  ,      .             19501960-  (. , . , . ).





 

  



 1998 by Tom Bethell.

  ͻ, 2008




 


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   ,            ,   .       ,        :  ,  ,  ,  ,   ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  .      ,            ,     ,  ,  ,     .           ,         .

       -       ,      , ,  ,      .     ,  ,      .        ,          .                 (Competitive Enterprise Institute).

       1974.,   Newsweek       .   ,     ,     .    ,  ,    ,      ?     ,     .    ,     .       .    .          ,        ,     ,    ,     ,  ,   ,  ,  ,    .       .

 ,      ,    ,    .      ,        .  ,        ,     .      .      1970- .      ,          .

           .     American Spectator:  ,       . -.  . ,    ,     ,        .      ,          .        ,       St. Martins Press,       ,  ,  堖   . ,     Bay Area       .







 1990.         ,       .               .             .  ,   ,     ,      ,       ,     ,    .  ,  -            ,    .          .       ,      蠖    ,        .            ,     .

     ,          .   .  ,      ,      . ,      ,        ,          .        ,         ,         .    ,        젖       .      ,   ,     .

     - ,   .       , ,  . ,     .                 .     .

                 .    ,       ,     ,        .                  ,         ( ),     ,       .        .   ,         .

      .    ,      .                  ,     ,   ,  ,  ,   ,     XIX ,    ,    ,  ,   ,    ,   ,     .

     . , , ,  ,  , ,       ,     .            . ,     ,    .     ,      ,  ,    .

     .         ,               .               . ,        . ,    .  렖      ,      .   ,          ,   ,   ?          . ,        .    ,              .    ,      .

             .  ,        ,    ࠖ    .          ,      .        ,      . ,      ,   ,     ,      ,    . (,      2,      ,    .)

 ,  ,        ,       ,       ,       ,     -     .         :    ,        ,  ,      ,      .             .




 I.  





 1.  








          .            .          , , ,       XVIII   .     ,    XIX .                 .          .        .

 1950- ,  Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.      ,  102         .           12-   .    ,           [1 - Arnold Toynbee, Civilization on Trial (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1948), 39.].  -   ,          .     ,   , XVXVIII ,       ,      ,  . ,       ,                  ,     堖  .          ,        [2 - Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York: Random House, 1987), 1617.].

        (   ,    )       ,          ,    [3 -          .: Jeremy Waldron, The Right to Private Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); James O. Grunebaum, Private Ownership (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987); Alan Ryan, Property and Political Theory (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984); Alan Ryan, Property (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1987); Andrew Reeve, Property (Basingstoke: Macmillan Education Ltd., 1986).].    ,     ,  ,           ,         .        ,     XVII .

     ,               [4 - Dennis J. Coyle, Property Rights and the Constitution (Albany, N.Y.: State Univ. of New York, 1993), 3, 4.].   1930-  ,        .  1928  1974            [ ].     ,          ,      1980             ࠖ      [5 - Richard Pipes, Human Nature and the Fall of Communism, Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49 (January 1996): 48.].  ,  ,     ,           .

      ,     ,      ,       [6 - .: Campbell R. McConnell, Economics: Principles, Problems, and Policies, 10th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987), 38.].   ,     , ,         ,  .        - ,       ,    1970- ,      .  ,      ,            [7 - Armen Alchian,   .: The Economics of Property Rights, ed. Eirik Furubotn and Svetozar Pejovich (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishing Co., 1974), xiii.].  ,     ,           [8 - Steven N. S. Cheung, The Contractual Nature of the Firm, Journal of Law and Economics 26 (April 1983): 20.].   1970-   ,           [9 -  ,   ,  1988.].      ,       1987 , :    ,       .     ,    [10 - Robert Solow, in Arjo Klamer, Conversations with Economists (Totowa, N. J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1983), 13031.].

      .          [11 -          .  ,     XVIII ,     .   ,                    .    XIX       [economics].         ,      -.           ,         ,   ,    .           .            ,        .],     ,     ,            .    .         ,      .     ,    ,     ,   XIX ࠖ        .    XIX      ,  ,   .      [12 - John R. Commons, The Economics of Collective Action (New York: Macmillan, 1950), 43.].           ,        .




  


,       -          .    ,           .     ,     ,  ,   ,  : , ,   .       ,      (  )       .

          .   - ,      ,   ,    [13 - Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1937), 76.].   ,     , ,          [14 -  ,   ,  1988.].         ,     ,     .       .       ,           ,   .    , ,  ,       .

           ,       .         ,    ,    [15 - James Boyle, Shamans, Software, and Spleens (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1996), 47.].         ,            .  ,            .

ࠖ    ,       .  ,    ,   ,  , ,        ;   ,    ,      .   -     ,       ,  . (    ,       ,        .         [16 - James W. Ely, Jr., The Guardian of Every Other Right: A Constitutional History of Property Rights (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 192), 16.].)    ,       ,   .          ໠     .      ,         .       .              .  Rerum Novarum (  ),   1891 ,   XIII ,    ,  ,   ,       ,     [17 - Pope Leo XIII, On the Condition of the Working Classes (Rerum Novarum, 1891) (Boston: St. Paul editions, n.d.), paragraph 23.].

           .        ,             ,         .    .                 .   ,        .    ,  ,   ,       .  ,  ,  ,   .    ,    ,    .     . ,       [18 - James Q. Wilson, A Cure for Selfishness, Wall Street Journal, March 26, 1997.].

         .  ,    ,     ,    .     ,     .  , ,      ,     . ,            .  ,        ,     ,    .

    ,         .         ,    .          .       ,         .                      .     ,   . ,     ,             .   ,   ,   .        젖        .

       .     ,       ,    - .            .  ,          ,    [19 - Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 377.].   ,            ,           .      ,    (    ),    .    ,         .

         .   ,           .  ,               .        ,          ,   ,   ,      .




  


                   . ,      ,     , -    .    ,    ,  .     ,         .     .       ,          ,   .  ,         .          .               1987  ,            ,   [20 - McConnell, Economics, 904.],    ,        ?

     ,      ()         .    .        (Statistical Abstracts of the United States)  ,           .   1989 ࠖ    ! ,         ,    (10330  10320 . ).     ,   1980           ,   [21 - U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1989 (Washington, D. C.: G. P. O.), 822.].       .

      .          ,          .           . ,        ,            .   ,    ,    .     ,      頖      .    ,       ,    ,       .

 1996    Economist       [22 - The Mystery of Economic Growth, Economist, May 26, 1996.].        .      -  .   , :      .     ,       ,   .         ,  .          .          .          ,      ,          [23 - Hernando de Soto,   ,  1989.].       ,     .

       ,  ,    ,   .        젖   .      ,   . ,   堖   ,  .     ,  堖   .       ,      .  ,   ,       ,   .       .       .

  ,              , , ,       ( ) ,     .          XVIII .   ,     ,     . (     ,   -    :    ,    .     ,     ,  堖 .)  -,       ?      ,       .     :     ,    -.      .

   ,  ,       .  ,           .       ,      .   ,       ,    ,        ,   .    ,          .

      ,       .    , ,  ,          .  ,   ,    ,       . ,     ,           ,  ,    ,      . ,      . ,  ,         .       ,   . ,       ,   ,     .    ,          蠖     .  ,    ,    .      .

,         1970-       .  ,     ,           .     ,             .         .      1981        ,      ,         , ,     , ,     .      ,      .    ,   ,        ,     , ,   ,    .

   ,      ,  ,          . -     ,     ,      .           .              ,          ,               [24 - Paul M. Barren, Influential Ideas: A Movement Called Law and Economics Sways Legal Circles, Wall Street Journal, August 4, 1986.].        20.




  


       .       :            ,     . ,     .       , , ,   .        ,    .     - ,     . ,    ,      .    ,    ,   ,     !       .

 ,          ,  ,         .         .   ,        .  ,    . - ,     ,         .    ,           ;             ,      [25 - Arthur O. Lovejoy and George Boas, Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1935), 272273.].   ,  , 

		,   ,   
		     
		,        . 
		      .

(,  IV)
          .      ,         .       ,       .  ,       .       ࠖ      .             .        ,       .     - ,     .  ,    ,   .   ,  ,   ,  . , ,  .

             :      ,  ,      .  , -,  ,     .     ,   .     ,        ,   -   .   ,      ,      . (  9  ,      ,     .)

   : .     ,      (  ).    젖  .    ? !        .   -    .     ,            .        .     .

    ,     ?       ,        [26 -  .  .  3- . . 1. .: , 2005. . 172174.].   ,        . ,          ,    .      (1689)[27 -   Essay Concerning Human Understanding     ,  The Two Treatises of Government    1689 ,      1690 ,    ,      ,    ,        (Maurice Cranston, John Locke: A Biography [New York: Macmillan, 1957], 327).]      ,     .      ,  ,           .   ,  ,  ,  ,       [28 -  .     //  . .  3- . . 1. .: , 1985. . 154.].

       ,      . (        ,      ,       .)    - :      ,  ,      .       ,  ,   ,  ,     ,             [29 -  .     //  . .  3- . . 1. .: , 1985. . 156.].

      ,      1700 .       .     ,   De lesprit ( )    1758 .    ,  ,    .   蠖     ,       ,      .   ,    .    ,  .     ,   ,   ,       ,    ,   [30 - M. Grossman, The Philosophy of Helvetius (New York: Columbia, 1926), 11.].  ,       ,        .   ,      . (Leducation peut tout!)           ⠖      .

   . .            .    ,          XVIII [31 -  . .    . .: . - . , 1938. . 9394.],  .  ,          1895.                 젖   .

   ,        ,          ,   , , -,           .         ,     [32 -  .  .  3- . . 1. .: , 2005. . 174.].      ࠖ   .

           , ,     .    ,           ,         ,      .             .         ,        ,   ,    .

    ,         .     XIX ࠖ , ,      .       ,         .             .     ,     : ,    ,      ,         [33 -  .    . . 2 //  . .  3- . . 3. .: , 1988. 30.].      蠖   , ,    ,    [34 -  .     //  . .  2- . . 2. .: , 1996. . 541553.].             [35 - Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Law of England (  17651769.).]. ,    ,   ,      ,     .

 ,           ,   ,       .        ,   ,        .       ,   .   70-      .     -      ,       .    ,      .

        .       ,      1931     .   ,     ,  ;      ,     ,  ,      [36 - Michael Holroyd, Bernard Shaw, vol. 3 (New York: Random House, 1991), 249.].  ,                     .   1991           [37 - Gorbachev and Yeltsin Answer Questions from Americans on TV, Reuters dispatch, Washington Post, September 7, 1991.].   ,        .

         .      ,    .        ,       ,   ,  -    , , .    ,   ,       .         .   ,            ,       ,     .

 ,     ,    ,       .       .    ,          ,  ,   , ,        .  ,       ,   .   ,     .

        ,      .     ,    ,   .    .         , -,      .     ,           . -         [38 - Al Gore, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Plume, 1993), 274.].      .           ,         .




 2. ,   



   . ,    ,   .      .    ,          ,        .        ,   .          . , , ,            .       .  ,     ,  ,   .    (Giles Jacob, New Law Dictionary)  ,      XVIII ,     ,       -;         (17231780),        (    ),      ,          ,         [39 - Sir William Blackstone, Ehrlichs Blackstone, ed. J. W. Ehrlich (San Carlos, Cal.: Nourse Publishing, 1959), 113.].

          .    1961        ,    ,     .    :       ;     ;    ,  ; ,    ,      .  ,            .     -,    ,        , ,      :   ,  ,          ,    ,     ,   ,  ,  ,   .         ,          . , ownership, dominium, propriete, Eigentum              [],     ,   ,      [][40 - Tony Honore, Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence, ed. A. G. Guest (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1961). .  Lawrence Becker and Kenneth Kipnis, eds., Property: Cases, Concepts, Critiques (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984), 79.].

       Pruneyard Shopping Center   (1980)    ,       蠖         [41 - Rehnquist, Pruneyard Chopping Center v. Robins, 447 U. S. 74 (1980).].         ,   ,   . ,    ,      1916-1936.,           .

        .          VI    ,    .     ,     ,  ,   .       XVIII ,      . , ,    ,        .

    ()          .   1923    ,      ,       [42 - American Law Institute, Restatement of the Law of Property, vols. 12 (St. Paul: American Law Institute Publishers, 1936), iv.].      .          -  ,     ,         ,    .

  ()                   (18791918),   1913      ,     .        ,        .       ,    ,     .  ,   ,            .   ,  ,         ,  ,  ,   ࠖ   ,     ,  ..               ,        , ,   ,      [43 - Wesley N. Hohfeld, Fundamental Legal Conceptions As Applied in Judicial Reasoning (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1923), 23114.].

        .  ,         [44 - Roscoe Pound, Jurisprudence, vol. 5 (St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1959), 12627.].      ,    .                      [45 - Richard R. B. Powell, Powell on Real Property, rev. ed. (New York: Matthew Bender, 1968).]. ( . . ,     ,                     [46 - Richard R. B. Powell and Patrick J. Rohan, Preface to Powell, Powell on Real Property, xv.].)

, ,      頖         .           [47 - American Law Institute, Restatement of Property 1: 11.]     ,   .          .  ,    ,      ,    ,      .

      ,             .        ,          (1977):   ,              ,            .  ,           ,     .          ,    ,         .  ,    ,          ,     [48 - Bruce Ackerman, Private Property and the Constitution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 26.].

,    .  ,     .    ,    .             .      , , ,            ,          . ,  ,       [49 - Bruce, Economic History, 220.].  , , .  - ,         .

               .         ,       , ,    ,          ,          . , ,       ,        ,      .        ,     ,   ,  .   ,     -    .

      .  XIX   ,         ,       ,          ,         ,   , ,        .           .    ,            .         ,          ,       [50 - Sir William Markby, Elements of Law, 6th ed. (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1905), 158.].

 ,       ,      .       ,    .  ,                    .      .               ,     .     18,         .

   ,  ,                              .  ,    ,      .             ,    ,   ,    ;      .      ,   ,         ,   .  , ,     .           ,          .        ,  ,    .          ,  ,      .

  1980-    . ,     .                 ,            (1985) ,              [51 - Richard A. Epstein, Takings: Private Property and the Power of Eminent Domain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1985).].  1987       1961 ,     .     ,        .     ,         .                        [52 - Tony Honore, Making Law Bind (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987), 161.].

     1993 ,               (Robert C. Ellickson, Property in Land).       ,   ,     .        ,   ,        :                   ,   .  ,  , -   ,  ,      ,         [53 - Robert Ellickson, Property in Land, Yale Law Journal 102 (1993): 1362-1363.].




   


,    ,    .        .       .    ,       ,      .   ,           ,     .      . ,        ,    ,   ,          .   ,   ,  ,   ,  -    .               ;        ,           ,    .

     ,   .        ,    .     , ,      ,     .         :      ?   ,    ,         .        ,  ,      .   ,   ,   ,     ,   .    ,            .    , ,       ,   ,           .

   ࠖ    堖   ,        .       (,   )     ,       (    ).   ,        .  ,      .      .         ius publicum  ius privatum,   ,      ,  堖 [54 - Frederick H. Lawson, Introduction to the Law of Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), 90.].

   XIX     .                 .               ,       .  ,       .        ,        .         ,                 .  . .            (1958): ,      ,         (      ),      ,         ,         ,        .        ,     ,    ,     -               ,        ,            ,          ࠖ  ,  [55 - Frederick H. Lawson, Introduction to the Law of Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), 90.].




   


    : ,   .     ,              . ,          .          .                .     ,               .  ,            .    ,    ,   ,    ,            .        ,        .    ,        ,      [56 -      . Jeremy Waldron, The Right to Private Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 3746.].

        .  ,    ,    [57 - Richard A. Epstein, On the Optimal Mix of Private and Common Property, in Property Rights, ed. Ellen F. Paul, Fred D. Miller Jr., and Jeffrey Paul (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994), 1741.].         .     ,         ,  , ,               .      ,              [].         ,    .   ,    ,     .

       .  ,      -.       ,          ,    .        ,       .   , ,          ,    .

  ,      (Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action),          ,    ,          .  ,         堖    .           ,          .      .    ,  .    ,   ,    ,           ,             [58 -  ,   ,  1991.].

 ,       ,   - ,          .     ,     :    .  ?   ,      ,  堖      .      ,     ,       .    ,       ,      ,      .      ,      .    .

      ,            .   ,          .             (.  19).    ,      ,        .        .

    .      ,         .             .     [59 -       ,       25. . .]  ,    ,      .   ,    . ,  ,     ,    .     ,     ,   ,    , -     .     ,       .     ,  ࠖ    ,    ,     .

          :  ,         ,         .            ,         ,        [60 - Hernando de Soto, The Missing Ingredient, Economist, September 1117, 1993.].           .

       .          .     ,     .    ,  ,       .        ,   ,  ,        ,    .          ,           .

   ,  ,   ,    . ,       ,       .     .  ,    ,  ,  ,   ,  ,   頖   .       ,     ,  ,  ,         ,  ,       .          ,              ,       ,      .

                 .   ,   , ,   ,    .     .     .  ,         .    ,   ,   .    ,       ,          .

  ,         ,   ,     ,          .          -     .          (,  )    ,   ,      (.  21).          .  ,        ,              .          ,      ,    ,       ,   ,        ,    ,  ..

    ,              .         .    -   ,    ,        ,  .        ,       ,     13-  (1989.)   ,     [61 - Paul Samuelson and William D. Nordhaus, Economics, 13th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989), 841.].         1960- ,          [62 - Edmund W. Kitch, ed, The Fire of Truth: A Remembrance of Law and Economics at Chicago, 19321970), Journal of Law and Economics 26 (April 1983): 229.].         ,         ,       .

 ,       ,         -.  1993.          堖          .     ,     ,    ,     ,   .       ,  ,       ,   .        .      [63 - Douglas C. North, Economic Performance through Time, American Economic Review 84 (June 1994): 359366.].

       ,    .          ,        [64 -  ,   ,  1988.].           ,        ,    [65 - Douglas C. North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: W.W. Norton, 1981), 8, 17.]. ,           ,         .            1990   :    蠖      .    ?      ?         ,    .        ,       ,      ,         . [    , ]      ,       ,  , , ,   ,  -.     ?  ,  []   1950 , ,            ,     [66 - Douglas C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990), 67.].

     ,        .         .       ,         .        20.        ,    .       ,        .     ,    ,      ,       .    ,    ,       ,     ,        ,        ,          .




-  


 ,        ?     ,   ,    XIX    ,         .  ,     ,  1880-           [67 - William Stanley Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour, 3d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1894), 16.].   laissez faire     ,   . , ,      ,             .  . .    1905 :   ,     [68 - Albert V. Dicey, Law and Public Opinion in England (London: Macmillan, 1905), 49394.].           .

,   laissez faire     ,     .       .        . ,               ,   ,      ,   ,   1930-      .  ,   ,        [69 - Ivor Jennings, The Law and the Constitution, 5th ed. (London: Univ. of London Press, 1959), 309.].

     .            .  ,   1936       ,           .     ,       .     ,      . 堖      -  .           .    , ,        ,   -.             .    ,    ,     .         ,       .

          ,    ,      ,          .    ,       .   ,     ,     . ,            .      ,          ,     ,          ,   .




 II.  








 ,      ,    .         .    ,     .   ,     .       ,  , .    ,          ,      .     ,           .       ,   -   .   ,                 ,  ,          .

  1620  -   ,        .        .             :      ,        .      .   ,   ,       [70 - Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of Commons, Science 162 (December 13, 1968): 1243: 48.]. ,    ,   ,         .




 3.  :     








          ,   ,  ,  ,  ,     .            ,  .     I     ,          ,    .   1607.             [71 -           , ,     .  XVII      ,    . . .].        104 ,   ,     38,    ,      .     ,      ,  ,   , ,    ,  ,     .     [72 - George Percys Account of the Voyage to Virginia and the Colonys First Days, in The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 16061689, ed. Warreb M. Billings (Chapel Hill: Univ. Of North Carolina Press, 1975), 2226.].

         . ,   ,         ,    .   .     ,  .      .  :          ,        [73 - George Percys Account of the Voyage to Virginia and the Colonys First Days, in The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 16061689, ed. Warreb M. Billings (Chapel Hill: Univ. Of North Carolina Press, 1975), 2226.].

    ,   1609  500     .   ,     ,    ,      ,      .    .      ,   :  [74 - Starving Time, in Billings, Old Dominion, 28.].        500   60[75 - Charles Campbell, History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1860), 93.].   ,     .      ,          ,    ,    ,  .   ,   .

     :    ,  ,     ,        ;          .  :           ,   ;     ,  ,   ,      ,   [76 - Starving Time, 28.].

  ,     ,     ,    .           1611 [77 - Campbell, Colony and Ancient Dominion, 104.].   ,                  .     ,     .   ,      , ,         [78 - Philip Alexander Bruce, Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan, 1907), 205.].

 ,       ,      ,       ,     [79 - Billings, Old Dominion, 9.].      ,  ,        .      XVII    ,              .       ,       .   , ,           ,               [80 - Bruce, Economic History, 212213.].

    .      ,        ,        .   ,     .            1615          :                     ,  ,      ,           ,  ,        ,        ,         ,           [81 - Alexander Brown, The First Republic in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1898; reprint, New York: Russell & Russell, 1969), 205.].

    .     ,    ,   (           ).      ,      , ,  ,    1612-  1613 .  1616     ,           [82 -   .       .  (1608).      (1612),       .     .  ( 1614),         .      (1616),          .    ,     (1617).            ,   ⠖    . . . .]     ,       [83 - Bruce, Economic History, 220.].   ,                      [84 - Matthew Page Andrews, Virginia, the Old Dominion, vol. I (Richmond, Va.: Dietz Press, 1949), 68.].

    .    ,     ,       ,       .       ,       ,    ,     ,              [85 - Ibid., 59, 61.].

  ,  ,       ,         :    ,          ,    [86 - Ibid., 72.].   ,   , ,     - ,        ,      .          ,  , []               [87 - Brown, First Republic, 205.].

   ,         :               ,   堖  .

      ,         ,   ,     ,      .     ,       ,     [88 - A True and Sincere Declaration, in Billings, Old Dominion, 14.].         .   , ,     .

      ,     ,     ,   1612., ,     ,  .     , ,   [],    ,     ,     ,     ,      ;   ,    ,  ,    .        .    , ,   ,            .                 [89 - Ibid., 27.].

               .  1616.     :          ,      , -        ,     ;        ,   ,    ,   , ,               ,          ,     ,   ,    [90 - Andrews, Virginia, 6768.].

     ,      :       ,           ,     ,     .        ,           ,            (   )     (   ).  1616      ,   .     ,    ,    ,      .







    .              . ,         .  ,    ,   .  , ,        .  I      ,    ,  ,    .             -       .  1620.,     ,  ,     .  ,  ,  . ,    , ,  , .   .

   ![91 - William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 16201647, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knoph, 1952), 30, n. 2.]

      ,  1609       ,         ,   .         .         ,       ,     .      -      ,     ,     ,      ,           .                      [92 -  .    . .:  , 1987. . 40.].

    1590     30           (       )          .             ,    [93 -  .    . .:  , 1987. . 118119.].          .

   ,      ,             .           ,     ,           [94 -  .    . .:  , 1987. . 54.].   ,     .          .   ()        ,       .       ,              ,   ,       .  ,       [95 - William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 16201647, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knopf, 1952), 37, n. 2.].

  , ,  ,     50      ,  ,         . -         .   ,    , ,       1648     1800  ( 300 000 .   ).          ,     ,    ,    1500 . .[96 - William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 16201647, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knopf, 1952), 37, n. 2.].

       ,   ,   ,    .        ,    ,            , -:         [  ]         ,           [97 - .    . . 58.].

          ,              .   , ,   ,    ,    ,     ,   ,   250 .   ,      .  -     .         ,          :      ,      ?       ?[98 - .    . . 61.]

 ,  ,    ,        .  ,                ( ,        ).      .      . ,       ,  , ,  ,  ,        ,   ࠖ       ,      .     ,            ,      ?            ,          .    ,       ,      ,   ,          ,      .

         ,      ,   ,       ,        ,   1606            .        ,       ,      .      頖             ,     ,      ,      ,    [99 - .    . . 60.].

         :     , ,  ,         ;       ,   ;     ,     ,    , ,   .      ,         ,     . ,      ; ,     ,        [100 - .    . . 6061.].

     (),      .    ,    .    .          ,      .          ,     ,       .             .    ,    .              ,          ;   ,    ;      [101 - .    . . 55.].

   ,    ,              .   . ,       ,      ,         ,    ,  . , ,  ,    ,  .         ,     .     ,       .

   ,         .   ,            ,             .

   -   1620 ,    101 .         ⠖  ,  ,   .         ,    ,             ,     .       ,     ,              -[102 - Samuel Eliot Morison, introduction to Bradford, Plymouth Plantation, xxiv.].     ,        ,    ,       .  11      ,      ,        :        ,     .    ,       ,   ,                    .     ,  ,   ,      ,     .  ,       ,    ,          .    ,         ,    [103 - George D. Langdon, Pilgrim Colony: A History of New Plymouth, 16201691 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1966), 12.].

 1621         ,     .  , ,      1621    35  .        ,       .   1622      .           60    .   1623      150 .         . -  ,      ࠖ   ,   .   ,     ,         ,          (  ,      ):     ,    (   ) ,             ;      -, .              (     ),      - .     ,          ,    -      .             ,        ;      ,      .

,         ,      ,      ,  -    , ,        ,       ;    .  ,     (   )         ,       .        ,       ,       .        ,  ,      ,   ;   .    ,       , ,   .      ,      .       ,       .,     ,       . ,    ,   , ,   ;     ,     ,        ,     .         .   ,     ,     .  ,        ,        ,     [104 - .    . . 118119.].

 , , ,         ,   ,          .          .       ,       .         (   ),      .         ,      . ,          ,        .  ,     ,    .          ,         .          ,       ,    .

 ,         ,     ,        [105 - Langdon, Pilgrim Colony, 30.].     ,  ,     ,           [106 - Samuel Eliot Morison, The Story of the Old Colony of New Plymouth (New York: Knopf, 1960), 9596.]. ,      ,    .    ,       .       .   ,      ,    ,          ,    .  ,         㻠  50%.

,   ,    .    ,         ,  .   ,    ,     ,  ,      .  ( )     ( ).      ,  .    ,        .

 ,   1621-  1622       .  ,       ()     ,       ,      :           , , ,           .    ࠖ    ?    ,    ?

     .   ,   ,       .        .      ,            ,       . ,   ,      .        ,         .  ,          .      ,      .

        .    1657 .    ,           ,      [107 - .    . . 118.].            ,       ,      .  ,     ,     ,  ,    ,    .  ,  ,        ,    ,   [108 - Jean Bodin, The Six Books Of A Commonweal, ed. Kenneth D. McRae (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1962), 11.]. (      ,       ,         [109 - Ibid., 12, 707.].)

,   , ,                 .        .     ,    ,    .  .      ,                 .




 4.   



   ,   ,  .  .    ,      .      .     ,          . ,   ,    ,   .     ,      .    ,     .  ,     .          .

      .    ,        .          ,         (1988).    ,   堖    -  ,   ,    .     , ꠖ  .    ,  ,    , , ,  , .     .    .    (1929),                 :  ,    .  .  .       .  , ,       .

 ,  :   .

 ,  .    -, ,    ,     .       -    .     .       ,       .      ,             . ,  ,         .   ,  [110 -  .   . .: , 2001. .238239, 240.].

   ,   .     ,  ,   ,    99% ,   .      ,      ,       .  ,       ,       ,  :    ,     ,         ,   .         ,           .

  ,       ,     , , ,             (        ).     ,      ,  ,  ,   ,    .        ,     ,      .       ,    ,  , -,      .    ,         .

 ,       ,        .    .    ,    ,          .   ,       .         ,   .        ,     .             .

     ,          .     ,     ,   ,   ,            .      .  1833            .       ,      ,  :      ,  ;     ,           ,   .     ,  ,     ,   ,     .     ,         .     ,    ,       ;             ,     ,        .   ,     ,   -;     ,    ;         ,        젖   젖 [111 - John Wade, History of the Middle and Working Classes (1833; reprint, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1966), 429.].

           .          ,   ,   1832    .     ,  ,      ,        ,   .   ,     .     ,  ,        ,    ,   ,    [112 - William Foster Lloyd, On the Checks to Population, in Managing the Commons, ed. Garrett Hardin and John Baden (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1977), chap. 3.].

      ,      .     .   1960-       ,            . ,    ,   1967   American Economic Review   ,     .  1968          Science    .        50[113 - Harold Demsetz, Toward a Theory of Property Rights, American Economic Review 57 (May 1968): 347359; reprinted in Harold Demsetz, The Organization of Economic Activity, vol. I (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of Commons, Science 162 (December 13, 1968): 12431248; reprinted in Hardin and Baden, Managing the Commons.].

         -  .      ,   ,    .   1630-           ,       ,      1647 .         ,    .   XVIII     ,      .        .     .       .

   ?        ;       .      .   -  :        ,       .        ,       .  ,     ,    .         .

      .      ,     ;     ,    .    蠖    .            .     .  , ,      ,   ,          .        .         .

  蠖           ࠖ  ,           .   .     ,    ,  ,  ,       ,       , ,     .        ,            ,    ,     .

         .      ,      ,      .        ,               .             . ,       ,   .      [114 - Hardin, Tragedy of the Commons, 22.],    ;       .          ,     .    ,     :     . ,            .      ,   ,             .   ,        .           .   ,      .     ,       :     ,        唻[115 - Ibid., 20.].

           (       ),           (        ),         .         ,   .     .    ,    ,          .

 ,         , ,   ,          [116 - Ibid., 21.].              ,  .       .     ,       ,       .    :     ,          ,    ,        ,       [117 - Garrett Hardin, Property Rights: The Creative Reworking of Fiction, in Naked Emperors: Essays of a Taboo Stalker (Los Altos, Calif.: Wm. Kaufmann, 1982), 173182; . : Garrett Hardin, Filters Against Folly (New York: Viking Penguin, 1985), 89114.].              950 . ,      19,            .

          ,     ,   .      (  ),    .     ,        (1990),        (1991)       (1996)[118 - Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990); Glenn G. Stevenson, Common Property Economics: A General Theory and Land Use Applications (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991); Matt Ridley, The Origins of Virtue (New York: Viking, 1996), chap. 12.].   ,            .          ;   ,      .    ,    ,       .      -,     , ,                .           .

 , ,       ,       . ,        ,      ,   . ,     ,      ,      . ,     ,    . ,    ,  - ,       . ,       ,       .

     ,     ,    ,      ,      .   ,    ,    .     ,   [119 - Robert C. Ellickson, Property in Land, Yale Law Journal 102 (1993): 1327-1328.]. ,     ,  ࠖ  .     ,   ,      .




   


  ,     .     .          .                .     ,        ,    .          ,       .     ,       .

    ,   ,         .      ,      .       ,    . ,   ,            .         .    ,    ,    XIX           .      ,      .

,  ,   ,      1870- ,     .         ,             800   28 000 .         ,    ,   .   (     )       -      .       ,           .      .    ,     ,  ,   .     150 ,  ,      .      , ,    ,       [120 - .: John A. Hostetler, Hutterite Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1974); Karl A. Peter, The Dynamics of Hutterite Society (Edmonton: Univ. of Alberta Press, 1987); William M. Kephart, Extraordinary Groups (New York: St. Martins Press, 1976).].    ,        ,    . 蠖 ,  .

       .  ,    .         [121 - Martin Buber, Paths in Utopia (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958), 139.].    1980-     ,      ,      ,  ,        [122 - Amos Elon, The Israelis: Founders and Sons (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Pelican Books, 1983), 20.].   1989  3%  ,   ,   4 . [123 - Joel Brinkley, Debts Make Israelis Rethink an Ideal: The Kibbutz, New York Times, March 5, 1989; Daniel Williams, Down on the Kibbutz, Israelis Face a Financial Crisis, Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1989; Glenn Frankel, Farewell to the Kibbutz, Washington Post, July 9, 1989; Geraldine Brooks, Saving the Farm: The Israeli Kibbutz Takes a Capitalist Tack to Keep Socialist Ideals, Wall Street Journal, September 21, 1989.].     ,     .    (17  277   1990- ) ,   ,       .          [124 -       (-)   1990. .: Tom Bethel, Is the Kibbutz Kaput? in Free Minds & Free Markets, ed. Robert W. Poole, Jr., and Virginia I. Postrel (San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute, 1993), 8190.].        . ,   ,          .

  ,        ,         ,      . , ,     ࠖ      .         ,     ,      .           ,                 ,  . ( WETA  ,  ,   60%  , ,   1998  90%     .)

,      ,    ,    .    㠖  .       ,      ,        .                     .        .    ,      .   ,      ,  .    ,         ,       .  ,  ,     , ,        .

      ,       ,    .          ,           .    -           .          ,               (                ), ,    .

     .  ,   ,      ,     ,      ,             .       .         ,    ,        , ,  ,       .    ,   ,           [125 - James D. Gwartney and Richard L. Stroup, Economics: Private and Public Choice. 4th ed. (New York: Harcout Brace Jovanovivich, 1987), 670.].   ,    1873   ,   .       , ,     .        ( ),        .        ,   .

   ,     ࠖ  ,  ,  ,  頖     ,      ,       ,   (  )  .             ,     .  1950  1990      , ,         1993 ,  92 .,         ,     堖  72 .  ,   17    13     [126 - Birgir Runolfsson, Fencing the Oceans, Regulation (Summer 1997): 5762;  .: The Tragedy of the Ocean, Economist (March 19, 1994), 2124.].

  ,         .               ,      .  ,         ,            .              1997 .    ,                 (       )   .           ,          .    ( )       ,    .

      ,           ,     (          ).   ,             .       ,   ,       .         ,        .




  


    -     .  ,             . 蠖     ,     ,   . -,         1958 [127 -  . ,   . .: , 1993. . 25, . 35.        ,            ,     ,           .].       1920   . .               .

 ࠖ    , ..    , .   ,  ,       ,   ,          ,       ... ,     ,      ,              [128 -  .   . .: , 1985. . 252.].

    ,       .   1950-      ,      .     ,  ,       .      ,          .  1970- ,      ,    ,       ,     .          .

      ,     .     ,      ,    .   , ,             .       ,       ,  .            .    ,     , ,  ,    .   -  -          ,    .   ,       -,      ,     .

-          ,       .           . ,   ,           .        ,    .      ,            .      .

,   ,      ,        ,           .           .      .      .  ,     .   ࠖ    .         ,    ,     ,     ,    .

       .    ,     ,   ,      ,           ,        ,    ,    .       .      ,  ,          ,   .   ,         .

       ,     . ,  , ,         .      ,            .     ,    ,     .   ,      . ,   ,   . ,       ,         ,             ,     .       ,        .

,          蠖 -   ,    .   堖        .  ,    ,    ,      1920- ,   ,   [129 - Elon, The Israelis, 141.].      ,        .           ,   . , ,     ,      ,         .            ,    .  .      .




 III.    :    








      ,    ,            .        :         . ,        .         ,     .     .   ,     .         .                  , ,   ?              ,     .    ,     ,   533  ..,       ,        [130 -               2000        (       ). ,            1985 .           .      ,  1875   . Alan Watson ed., The Digest of Justinian, 4 vols. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985). [           20022005     ( ).         (. .:  . .: , 1998),   . . . .]].      .   ,  䠖             ,     ,   ,   ,     [131 - Ibid., 1: xi.].        ,            ,   .  ,     ,     .   ,    ,          .        ,    ,      , , , [132 - Ibid., 1: 24.].   ,  , ,   .           .

 ,    ,         .    ,  ,           ,   .     .    ,        ,    ,     .      ,         ,     .      ,     ,    ,       ,     :      .         ,         .         頖 ,   蠖        .      .       ,     .            .         軠         軠    .        ,       .    ,      .




 5.    



        - . -        ,   ,       ,  - ,      ,       .       ,          ,   .   ,    ,   ,        ,             .            ,    .  ,       ,            [133 - Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism (London: Verso, 1974), 66.].     -  ,    ,    ,     ( )    .         ,    .           ,                   [134 -  .      . .: , 2005. . 41.].         .  ,    ,     .      ,              [135 -   .    . . 6. 22.].     ,        .   -      ,        .        ;    ,    ,    [136 - .   . . 5. . 14.].           .  ,   ,         .          :   ,  .             .    ,  ,  ,    [137 -  . . 6. . 3.].

            .      .   VI   ..       ,      . ,   ,   ,    ;         .      ,  ,     ,  ,   [138 - .  . .: , 1997. . 6.]. ,      ,  .    ,      ,     ,        ,  .    ,  ,      . -    ,    .

   ,    ,       .    ,    ,    ,  ,     ,     .  ,     .      -      ⠖ ,  .          ,     .        ,      :                .

 ,        .            .  XIX          ,      .    ,  ,       ,   ,         ,  頖 :      ,    ,    ,     ,      ;      ,   ,    ,      [139 - . //. .  4- . . 3. .: , 1994. . 5. . 240.].

,  ,     .        ,      .        ?[140 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1262b.]      ,         , ,  ,   .     ,  :              ,   堖     ,      ,    ,  ,   ,   [141 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263.].

          ,  ,    .  ,        ,   .      ,    ;     ,   ,     ,     .             [142 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1261b.].   ,       ,     ; ,   ,        ,   [143 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263.].

 ,  , ,       ,      ,  ,      :     .      ,  ,       ,     .      ,     ,  .       - [144 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1264.]

      ,    .           .     ,     -  .        ,    .       :          .       , ,            ,    -    ,      -     :       ,      ,   .      -   ,     ,    ,   ,  -    ,       ,    [145 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263b.].

       (         ),      .       ⠖ ,  堖          ,  .   ,      , ,   ,  ,   ,    .      ,     ,    .         ,        .

 ,     (      7 )     ;       ,   [146 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1329.].     ,       -, , ,       .       ,      ,       ,        [147 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1329b.].           .        (   )  .   ,  ,  ,    ,   ,       [148 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263.].     ,      .      ,  ,    ( ).      , ,    ,             [149 - . //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1329b.].                󻠖     .

        ,     ,    ,     .      , , ,     .   ,     ,  .




  


         . ,   ,       ,    450   ..                 ,      .         ,      ( ,  III) ,         .      30    ,      .      ,               ,       15 [150 - Tenney Frank, ed., An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, vol. 1 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1933), 14.].

        .       :    ,            ,    ;          ,       .    ,    [151 - Justinian, Justinians Institutes, trans. P. Birks and G. McLeod (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1987), 59.].        .

        (   )     .      .           [152 - Alan Rodger, Owners and Neighbors in Roman Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 1.].      ,   ,     ,  ,   ,  .    ,      .

 ,      ,   ,      V  ..              .           ,    [153 - Justininan, Codex, vii, 16.1.]. ,   ,   ,     ,   .            . ,    ,    ,  (  )    ,  :   [154 -      . .  , ,   ,  225   ..   4,4   600. .  43   ..   4,5   3  (P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C. A.D. 14 [London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1971], 121125).       ,          .        .          (Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism, 62).].

      (La Cite Antique, 1864)              .          ,    .  ,     .      ,     ,       .     .              .          ,   .                ,   .         .            .

,       ,        ,  ,           .   ,   ,  ,  ,    .          .          ,    ,        [155 - Numa Fuesel de Coulanges, The Ancient City: A Study on the Religion, Laws and Institutions of Greece and Rome (1864), reprint (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1980), 5264.]. ,  ,   ,     .

        ,    :              ,  .       ,         .             .     .

         , ,       ,   .  ,   .          ,   .     .  ,    ,  .   ,     ,      .  ,  ,         .    ,  ,          [156 - Ibid., 6263.].

 , ,  . ,    ,    ,         [157 - . , 1270. [     .  ,  ,  :  ,        ,   . . .]].    - .       []   .  ,        ,      ,    .

,  ?      .      ,  ,     ,     - .      ,     .  ,  ,   ,   ,     ;  ,    ;   ,    .       ,       .        . ,          [158 - The Digest of Justinian, 2425.].

               ,    .    -           .    ,      .  ,            (  ).     堖  ,      .        . ,     ,    II  ..,     47 ,   46    . 頖     ,    [159 - M. I. Finley, ed., Studies in Roman Property (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 23.].             ,  . . -[160 - M. I. Finley, ed., Studies in Roman Property (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 23.].

  ,     ,    ,     (    ).                 ,        ,  -  .  ,      .         .              ,  :    ,    ,        .    ,          ,    XVIIIXIX 頖        [161 - M. I. Finley, ed., Studies in Roman Property (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 89.].    ,         ,  ,     ,        .         ,     ,          ,   [162 - L. P. Wilkinson, ed., Letters of Cicero: A Selection in Translation (New York: W. W. Norton, 1968), 145, 148.].

      ,    ;      .           (        ). ,      ,     ,      ,  .          .     1 ,             ,   [163 - Bruce W. Frier, Landlords and Tenants in Imperial Rome (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1980), 3439.].       ,      ,       .  , -,  [164 - Finley, Roman Property, 73.].

        .    II  ..   ,   ,        , ,    ,    .    ,      ,    .     -       ,  ,  ,            [165 - Ibid., 128.].  ,      ,        [166 - Frier, Landlords and Tenants, 3233.].      .  ,        ,   .         , , ,    .

 ,   , ,    ,  res mancipi,   ,           .       ,       (  )      .          .  ,         ,    .           ,     ,            ,       [167 - John A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1967), 142.].  ,       ,  堖    .

      ,    ;   ,        .     .     ,        ;     ,    .             ,   .    ,       [168 - Ibid., 148.].    ,        ,       ,     .         ,                 .

   ,       .       64  ..  10  14  ,        .               ,     ,          ,  ,     ,            [169 - . . . 15. 43.].     ,  ,     .   ,             [170 -  . . 2. 33.].

      ,      ,          .   ,       ,         [171 - Rodger, Owners and Neighbors, 210.].    ,          ,     .

,   ,   ,     : ,       ,             ,  ,     ,       .     ,    ,      . ,    .           ,      [172 - Digest of Justinian, 275.].

       ,    ,    ,       ,           .     ,          ,         ,      ,  ..    ,    ,      ,   ,         ;       ,      .

           ?         ,       ,    ,       ,        ,          .        ,    ,               .                 .      䠖   , .     ,        ,    ,  .   , , ,       ,        .      [173 - Crook, Law and Life, 259, 263.].







          .       蠖   頖      .     ,        ,    , ,           .

 137   ..        ( )     ,     ,    .       .     ,     ,     .       .         (ager publicus).     ,      (  )  ,       .    ,   ,        ,                 .

     .       ,      ,           .  ,     ,       ,        .  133  ..  ,  ,    ,     .    ,  :         ,    ,  ,      ,     ,    , ,  ,  ,      .

  ,  367   ..,   ,         330   .  , ,    .   ,       .      ,       .       . ,        .       .

      ,      :         ,        ,   ,         ,    ,           .         ,  ,       ;       .   ,       . ,   ,  :       ,   ;        ;      ,     ,     . ,   ,    ,      ,     .

       ,   , ,    ,    ,   .            .      .           .     ,        .

    .      ,       .        .     ,    ,        ,             .  ,        .     :          . (    ,      .)

         .         .     ,   .         ,      . ,          ;     ,    .          ࠖ       17 ,      ,       ,     .       12   .

       .   ,        .    ,     -   :  ,  , ,  ,         .          ,     ,     ,      .      II  ..,          [174 - J. M. Riddle, ed., Tiberius Gracchus: Destroyer or Reformer of the Republic? (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1970), 113.].

 , ,   (     ).   ,    ,       .          .         ,      .    ,          .

      ,       ,      .     ,     .   ,       ,       .      ,       ,       .       ,   ,           ,    ,      .          ,      .

      , , ,    ,   ,    ,     .            ,        ,    .       ,        .    ,    ,           ,    ,     assidui,     [175 - Ibid., 61.]. (Assidui  ,           .)

      ,  ,     ,   .      ,        .      ,  .  , ,          ,    .          .            .

         ,         118   ..      50  75. ,     [176 - Frank, Economic Survey, 221.].          ,   , ,      ,    , ,    ,      .       ,     .     ,               .      ,          [177 - Anderson, Passages, 71.].      ,         .

      ,      .        젖   ,    ,        .     ,   ,    ,     ,      ,   .   ,      (   ),   ,    ,    ,         .       ,      .     ,              .

 ,               젖          ,      [178 -  . .   //  . .  .  .  .  .  . . . .: , 1999. . 379.].      ,           .     ,    .     ,         .          .  ,       , ,  .  ,    ,   ; ,    ,  ,    [179 -  . .   //  . .  .  .  .  .  . . . .: , 1999. . 377.].

 ,    ࠖ    .           ,          .               , ,   .  ,  ,      ,                 [180 -  . .   //  . .  .  .  .  .  . . . .: , 1999. . 375.].

 , ,    .     .  II   ..        .  ,       ,    ,      ,  ,    .    ,       .      .   ,     ,        .       :    , , , , .       ,    ,     (    ),    .

        ,     ,     ,   ,      .   ,          .        54   ..  ,    ,   .   ,    :    ,     ,         ,      ,        ,       ,   ,  ,   ; ,             ,           頖 , , ,  [181 -  . .  . . 3. XXII.]

  ,    ,  ,          ,    ,         .               . ,     ,  ,        .    ,      .    ,  -      .    , ,      , ,      ,  , , ,  , ,     ;        ,        [182 -  . .  . . I. .].

        ,    ,     .     ,  ,          ,      ,       .       ,     .




 6.  





 


      1818       ໠      [183 - Henry Hallam, View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, vol. 2 (1818; reprint, New York: W. J. Widdleton, 1874), 267.].    ?    ,   .      ,     ,      .    ,     ,           .                  .

            (1856)   .   ,  :      ,       ,     ,      ,        ?       .      ,           [184 - Alexis de Tocqueville, De Tocquevilles Lancien re?gime (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1956), 184185.].

              (1978)    ,   .     ,           ,  ,        [185 - Alan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978), 7, 8.].          , ,      ,            ,      .   :       ?     ,    ?     ?

         ,     .         ,        .       :  ,           [186 - Ibid., 199200, 206, 170.].          ,       ,          :       .

 ,         ,          :     ,    .    ,   ,        , ,   ,     .     . ,     (1969)        .    ,              ,           .    ,          ,   [187 - David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 200, 217; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969), 12, 1617.         ,       :   ,   ,      . ,        ,   XVIII       ,      ,     ,  ,      ,  . ,     ,   ,    ,    (David Frum, As the World Turns, Weekly Standard, April 27, 1998).].         -  .     .

 ,    ,   ,        1888      , - ,        ,     [188 - Vincent T. Delaney, ed., Frederic William Maitland Reader (New York: Oceana Publications, 1957), 4862.],           [189 - Frederic W. Maitland, The Constitutional History of England (1908; reprint; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1955), 142.].    , ,   1641 ,        ,  ,    ,   ,    ,     .     ,          XVIII ࠖ     .             .          .

          ,  .             .  ,     ,     ;          ,    .    ,                     .       ,     . ,  ,           ,     [190 - Ibid., 142.].

 ,        :     , ,   ,     ,       ,     .          .    ,   XII     XIII,      .       ,     .     ,  ,      :      .            .             .      ,      ,   dominium rei, proprietatem[191 -  ,  (.). . .],       proprietarius[192 -  (.). . .][193 - Ibid., 156.]

         ,   :   ,          , ,        ,      ,           .

   ,   ,  ,  XVI      .    ,   .           . -    ,    ,     .   ,   .  ,      ,          ,              ,          [194 - Eileen Power, Medieval People, 10th ed. (London: Methuen, 1964), 160.].

     ,    ,  ,  ,  ,     ,     .         .      ,    (    )   :   , ,   .  ⠖  ,   .             .    .

         .            .                ,            -.   ,      ,       ,        ,      ,   蠖   ,       [195 - Robert L. Heilbroner and Lester G. Thurow, The Economic Problem, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975), 17.].

      蠖   ࠖ       .         .      ,      ,      . ,   ,  ,  ,     ;      ,       ,       [196 -  .  //  .,  . . 2- . . 23. . 26, 27.].     ໠ ,     .

,                   .     , , ,     ,  1250      ,   1550-  1750 [197 - Macfarlane, Individualism, 195196.].    XIII    ,    .         ,      ,    , ,   XII .     ,    ,    .         .            ,          .

  ,     .        ,    ,                .     ,          .   ,       .  1612    ,   , ,     [customary law]            .    ,     ,        ,          ,    -   . [   , ]         (  ,       ),    ,       ,       [198 - John A. Pocock, The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957), 3334.].

 ,   ࠖ ,         ,     ,      .  ,    III,         , ,        ,     ,     .      ,    ,   ;    ,   ,   .  ,  ,     ,       .         ,   ,        [199 - Hallam, Middle Ages, 2: 316.].




 


         XII  XIII   ,    ,   ,   .    [common law]     ,    , ,     , .      ,   ,       .     ,   ,    ,    .         ,       ,   ,          ,       .

         .   ,   ,   .       ,   :   ,  ,    .  ,      ,         ,      (    ).   ,      .

   ,   ,       .  ,   ,    . ,    ,   XIII ,          . ,       .  ,        .       ,     ,     ,      . ,      [200 - Maitland, Constitutional History, 134135.].

 ,        .         .        ,      .       ,    ,        .        ,            .

    ,     .        .              ,    -   ,  . . [201 - A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885; reprint; London: Macmillan, 1960), 199.].  ,            . (      .)  XV        ,           ,   (copy)  ,   .         ,         .   XVII         .     ,     [202 -     . . .].

            . ,   [general]           .   XVII          ,    .

   ,                ,   XVII    .           ,        ,          [203 - Coke, 8 Rep. 118a (1610).].

         .           :    .         ,          .      ,       ,     ,     .      ,       .       .    ,      ,  ,       ,       ,      .               ,            .

            .            ,     .  XIII      ,       .      .          ,      .  , ,   .          ,             [rights of liberty].        ,    , ,        ,     ;  ,       [204 - Frederick Pollock and Frederic W. Maitland, The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (1895; reprint; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968), I: 407.].   ,   ,      .       :         , ,     ,   .      ,       .  Leges Henrici (    )          ;  ,   ,    : , , , ,  ,  , , , ,         .

    ,  ;       :  ,     .    ,    .     ,   ,   .       , , ,    .      ,    ;    ,          .       .    ,       ;   ,      [205 - Ibid., 408409.].

   ,              .    蠖 , ,      ,        .       : ,   ;      ,    .           .        .     :     蠖   ;  ,         .         .            ,    .   ,    ,       ,        .   ,             ,     .       ,   ,          ,  ,   ,    ,        , ,     ,    [206 - Hallam, Middle Ages, 2: 328.].

        ,         ,          ,     .        .            ,      ,      .

  ,      ,        ,     .     .   ,           ,     [207 - Maitland, Constitutional History, 125.].      ,     ,        .

, ,  ,    .    :        .    ,                .             .

 ,   (18501906)    ,    ,    ,       . . . . ,    1928     , ,        :   ,    ,      .    ,                [208 - John E. A. Jolliffe, Constitutional History of Medieval England, 2nd ed. (London: A&C. Black, 1947), 334.].         .    : ,    ,     [209 - Frederic W. Maitland, Selected Historical Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957), 127.].       ,  .   ,   ,   -        씻[210 - Ibid., 137.].

-,      ,   .     ,            ,         .  ,      (11991216),    ,      ,          ,     .          .  III     [211 -  III (12071272)   ,    12161272. . . .].

        .  ,  ,           ,     .        ,        ,               .         [212 - Hallam, Middle Ages, 2: 329.].

  ,            I,  .        ,       ,  ,     .       .    ,       . ,       ,       ,    .

         ,                ,     .          .        ,      .




  


 XVII             .  ,       ,  1696      ,      ,       15% ,   ,    ,   [213 - Charles H. Wilson, Economic History and the Historian (New York: Praeger, 1969), 120.].          ,             .

            .       .         ,      .  ,           ,  .

              ,  .          .      .          ,    .     .           .     .          .  ,      ,             .      ,         .          .

             .    ,  :       XVI             .       .            ,     [214 -   ,  ,                   ,    ,             .  ,     - . Gallup Opinion Index, April 1971, No. 70.].    ,  , , .         .

     ,      :   80-  XVII      ,      .          ,         (, ,     ).     ,          , , ,  . ,           ,      .

,  ,           ,    -      -   ,  ,      ,              ;          :   ,   ,  ,         .        .          :         , .. ,  ,     ,      ,        . ,                .         : , ,      ,   ,   , ,   ..[215 -  .    //  . .  3- . . 3. .: , 1988. . 9293.].

           ,  ,   ,  ,            ,     .        ,           .    ,        ,             .          ࠖ      . ,          ,             .

        .    (15901653)   ,    ,   ,     ,        .       .       ,      .            .         .     ,            .

       1681 ,  頖     ,  .               .            .    ,         II,        .         1688 ,   1689      .

    ,       ,             .     ,        ,   .       .           .               , ,   ,    -        ,          [216 -  .    . . 2 //  . .  3- . . 3. .: , 1988. 222.].

      .        :         ,         ,           ,  .        .     ,       ,    .   ,  ,             .         ,        ,                     .  ,          [217 -  . 27, 40.].      .

    ,    ,       .               , , ,   ,   [218 - John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1960), Laslett introduction.].            ,            .               ,      .        ,         蔻,   .

,         [219 - P. S. Atiyah, The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 14.].   XVIII            ,       ,         .    ,    ,     ,  ,       .         .        ,   -    . Habeas Corpus      1679 ,           .




 


         XVIII   :       -       ,     .      ,        ,    ,     .         :     ,   .     -           [220 -  .       . .: , 2007. . 386, 392, 393.].     .     ,      ,    ,        .       40   ,          .     ,        .  :  ,    ,  ,    ,        ,   ,              .    ,     , ,     ,      .

,       . ,      XVII ,  XVIII    .       .    ,      ,     ;            .     .  , -, ,      蠖  ,  堖    -   ,   -    ,    .    ,       ,   [221 - Wilson, Economic History, chap. 7.].

             ,     XVIII ,   1760  1815     3000   .        ,             ,          .        .    , ,    .                  ,    . .           ,   ,    ,             [ ]    ,     [222 - G. E. Mingay, Studies in Economic History: Enclosure and the Small Farmer in the Age of the Industrial Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1968), 1819.].

   ,    젖 ,          ,   [223 -  . . . I //  .,  . . 2- . . 23. . 00.].       .   ,      ,   . .      , 17601832 (Village Labourer, 17601832, 1911).  ,         .     .  ,  , ,   ,          XVIIIXIX .   .   ,           , ,            .

       (Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract)     :         ,     ,   ,   ,           .             ,       .          ,     ,           [224 - Atiyah, Freedom of Contract, 15.].

     ,       .    . ,  ,    .              ,      .             .     , ,   ,       .

. .  , ,     ,    ,        ,     ,    ,   [225 - Dicey, Constitution, 189.].       ,     ,     ,  ,        ,   ,   ,    .      ,              . ,    ,  ,   ,  ,       .

           蠖          ,         ,      ,      .       ,     ,     [] ,      .  ,  ,  ,        ,       ,          ,         ;      [1688.]     ,     [ ].      ,      ,    , ,   ,      ,     [226 -  .       . .: , 2007. . 517.].

      .       ,       XVIIXVIII ,   ,   ,       .       ,        ,     ,         [227 -  .       . .: , 2007. . 518.].

       ,     :     .  -      1766 ,       .         ,     ,    .            ,        ,      . ,  -        .    ,      ,     [228 - David S. Landes, ed., The Rise of Capitalism (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 99.].           ,         .

   ,   laissez faire    , ,       .       ,       ,        .     . ,       ,        .       14%  1690    4  1750-.  1880   ,   ,          ,        . (    ,         .)  ,  ,      ,          , [229 -  .    . .: , 1924. . 74.].

    .     ,  ,    ,  -      ,      - .  1965    ,        .               . ,    ,   :      ,   1760-  1850        ,        ,      [230 - Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2nd ed. 1979), 219, 220.].

  ,  ,      ,             , ,  ,   .         .         .       .

              . ,                XVIII ,  :                 ,          .        :   , ,                 ;           .   ,   -      ,      .     ,   XVIII ,   ,     ,            [231 - R. M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth (London: Methuen, 1971), 245, 247, 250.].

    ,      ,  .          ,    ,         ,   .      ,      .




 IV.    








,            ,       , ,   .   ,          . , ,    ,      .         .           ,  ,   ,     .      .        ,       堖   ,      .

  XIX    .      .   ,     .        ,               .    ,     ,     ,    - .          ,      .

  XIX   , -,       . ,     ,     ,    . ,            .           ,   ,         .




 7.  



       ,  ,     .  ,    ,   .  ,    ,  ,       ,    .        ,    .  XIX      ,          .        ,    ,     .        (Essay on the Right of property in Land, 1782)  ,   ,           .     ,        .          [232 - John M. Davidson, Concerning Four Precursors of Henry George and the Single Tax (1899; reprint; Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1971).].

-  ,       젖  ,  蠖  ,         .         ,      ,  .   ,     ,           ,       ,           .  , ,      ࠖ  .    ,        ?[233 - James Boswell, Life of Samuel Johnson (New York: Doubleday, 1946), 270.]

      ,        ,      .    ,   ,   ,       ,     ,      [234 -  . . .: , 1978. . 48.].        ,    .  XVII      ,  ,     ,          .     .

 ,        .-. ,              : , ,   ,    !    ,   ,     .   , , ,        , ,     ,    :    ;  ,  ,   蠖  ,   ࠖ [235 -  .-. . .: , 1969. . 72.].

        ,   [236 - Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, in Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Basic Political Writings, trans. and ed. Donald A. Cress, Introduction by Peter Gay (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987), 25.].      , , .          .     ,     ,   ,    .  1760-          ,         ,      . ,        ,     ,   philosophe,       [237 - Joan McDonald, Rousseau and the French Revolution, 17621791 (London: Univ. of London Press, 1965).].

           Edinburgh Review.       ,       .          ,               [238 -        (1723),    ,  ,   :           .   .   ,  .             .  ,   , ,  ,        ,        .  .   . .: , 1974;  . .   ,   . . .: , 2007;  .       . .: , 2007. . 444.]




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notes








1


Arnold Toynbee, Civilization on Trial (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1948), 39.




2


Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York: Random House, 1987), 1617.




3


         .: Jeremy Waldron, The Right to Private Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); James O. Grunebaum, Private Ownership (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987); Alan Ryan, Property and Political Theory (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984); Alan Ryan, Property (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1987); Andrew Reeve, Property (Basingstoke: Macmillan Education Ltd., 1986).




4


Dennis J. Coyle, Property Rights and the Constitution (Albany, N.Y.: State Univ. of New York, 1993), 3, 4.




5


Richard Pipes, Human Nature and the Fall of Communism, Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49 (January 1996): 48.




6


.: Campbell R. McConnell, Economics: Principles, Problems, and Policies, 10th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987), 38.




7


Armen Alchian,   .: The Economics of Property Rights, ed. Eirik Furubotn and Svetozar Pejovich (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishing Co., 1974), xiii.




8


Steven N. S. Cheung, The Contractual Nature of the Firm, Journal of Law and Economics 26 (April 1983): 20.




9


 ,   ,  1988.




10


Robert Solow, in Arjo Klamer, Conversations with Economists (Totowa, N. J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1983), 13031.




11


         .  ,     XVIII ,     .   ,                    .    XIX       [economics].         ,      -.           ,         ,   ,    .           .            ,        .




12


John R. Commons, The Economics of Collective Action (New York: Macmillan, 1950), 43.




13


Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1937), 76.




14


 ,   ,  1988.




15


James Boyle, Shamans, Software, and Spleens (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1996), 47.




16


James W. Ely, Jr., The Guardian of Every Other Right: A Constitutional History of Property Rights (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 192), 16.




17


Pope Leo XIII, On the Condition of the Working Classes (Rerum Novarum, 1891) (Boston: St. Paul editions, n.d.), paragraph 23.




18


James Q. Wilson, A Cure for Selfishness, Wall Street Journal, March 26, 1997.




19


Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 377.




20


McConnell, Economics, 904.




21


U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1989 (Washington, D. C.: G. P. O.), 822.




22


The Mystery of Economic Growth, Economist, May 26, 1996.




23


Hernando de Soto,   ,  1989.




24


Paul M. Barren, Influential Ideas: A Movement Called Law and Economics Sways Legal Circles, Wall Street Journal, August 4, 1986.




25


Arthur O. Lovejoy and George Boas, Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1935), 272273.




26


 .  .  3- . . 1. .: , 2005. . 172174.




27


  Essay Concerning Human Understanding     ,  The Two Treatises of Government    1689 ,      1690 ,    ,      ,    ,        (Maurice Cranston, John Locke: A Biography [New York: Macmillan, 1957], 327).




28


 .     //  . .  3- . . 1. .: , 1985. . 154.




29


 .     //  . .  3- . . 1. .: , 1985. . 156.




30


M. Grossman, The Philosophy of Helvetius (New York: Columbia, 1926), 11.




31


 . .    . .: . - . , 1938. . 9394.




32


 .  .  3- . . 1. .: , 2005. . 174.




33


 .    . . 2 //  . .  3- . . 3. .: , 1988. 30.




34


 .     //  . .  2- . . 2. .: , 1996. . 541553.




35


Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Law of England (  17651769.).




36


Michael Holroyd, Bernard Shaw, vol. 3 (New York: Random House, 1991), 249.




37


Gorbachev and Yeltsin Answer Questions from Americans on TV, Reuters dispatch, Washington Post, September 7, 1991.




38


Al Gore, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Plume, 1993), 274.




39


Sir William Blackstone, Ehrlichs Blackstone, ed. J. W. Ehrlich (San Carlos, Cal.: Nourse Publishing, 1959), 113.




40


Tony Honore, Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence, ed. A. G. Guest (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1961). .  Lawrence Becker and Kenneth Kipnis, eds., Property: Cases, Concepts, Critiques (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984), 79.




41


Rehnquist, Pruneyard Chopping Center v. Robins, 447 U. S. 74 (1980).




42


American Law Institute, Restatement of the Law of Property, vols. 12 (St. Paul: American Law Institute Publishers, 1936), iv.




43


Wesley N. Hohfeld, Fundamental Legal Conceptions As Applied in Judicial Reasoning (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1923), 23114.




44


Roscoe Pound, Jurisprudence, vol. 5 (St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1959), 12627.




45


Richard R. B. Powell, Powell on Real Property, rev. ed. (New York: Matthew Bender, 1968).




46


Richard R. B. Powell and Patrick J. Rohan, Preface to Powell, Powell on Real Property, xv.




47


American Law Institute, Restatement of Property 1: 11.




48


Bruce Ackerman, Private Property and the Constitution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 26.




49


Bruce, Economic History, 220.




50


Sir William Markby, Elements of Law, 6th ed. (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1905), 158.




51


Richard A. Epstein, Takings: Private Property and the Power of Eminent Domain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1985).




52


Tony Honore, Making Law Bind (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987), 161.




53


Robert Ellickson, Property in Land, Yale Law Journal 102 (1993): 1362-1363.




54


Frederick H. Lawson, Introduction to the Law of Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), 90.




55


Frederick H. Lawson, Introduction to the Law of Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), 90.




56


     . Jeremy Waldron, The Right to Private Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 3746.




57


Richard A. Epstein, On the Optimal Mix of Private and Common Property, in Property Rights, ed. Ellen F. Paul, Fred D. Miller Jr., and Jeffrey Paul (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994), 1741.




58


 ,   ,  1991.




59


      ,       25. . .




60


Hernando de Soto, The Missing Ingredient, Economist, September 1117, 1993.




61


Paul Samuelson and William D. Nordhaus, Economics, 13th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989), 841.




62


Edmund W. Kitch, ed, The Fire of Truth: A Remembrance of Law and Economics at Chicago, 19321970), Journal of Law and Economics 26 (April 1983): 229.




63


Douglas C. North, Economic Performance through Time, American Economic Review 84 (June 1994): 359366.




64


 ,   ,  1988.




65


Douglas C. North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: W.W. Norton, 1981), 8, 17.




66


Douglas C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990), 67.




67


William Stanley Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour, 3d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1894), 16.




68


Albert V. Dicey, Law and Public Opinion in England (London: Macmillan, 1905), 49394.




69


Ivor Jennings, The Law and the Constitution, 5th ed. (London: Univ. of London Press, 1959), 309.




70


Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of Commons, Science 162 (December 13, 1968): 1243: 48.




71


          , ,     .  XVII      ,    . . .




72


George Percys Account of the Voyage to Virginia and the Colonys First Days, in The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 16061689, ed. Warreb M. Billings (Chapel Hill: Univ. Of North Carolina Press, 1975), 2226.




73


George Percys Account of the Voyage to Virginia and the Colonys First Days, in The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 16061689, ed. Warreb M. Billings (Chapel Hill: Univ. Of North Carolina Press, 1975), 2226.




74


Starving Time, in Billings, Old Dominion, 28.




75


Charles Campbell, History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1860), 93.




76


Starving Time, 28.




77


Campbell, Colony and Ancient Dominion, 104.




78


Philip Alexander Bruce, Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan, 1907), 205.




79


Billings, Old Dominion, 9.




80


Bruce, Economic History, 212213.




81


Alexander Brown, The First Republic in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1898; reprint, New York: Russell & Russell, 1969), 205.




82


  .       .  (1608).      (1612),       .     .  ( 1614),         .      (1616),          .    ,     (1617).            ,   ⠖    . . . .




83


Bruce, Economic History, 220.




84


Matthew Page Andrews, Virginia, the Old Dominion, vol. I (Richmond, Va.: Dietz Press, 1949), 68.




85


Ibid., 59, 61.




86


Ibid., 72.




87


Brown, First Republic, 205.




88


A True and Sincere Declaration, in Billings, Old Dominion, 14.




89


Ibid., 27.




90


Andrews, Virginia, 6768.




91


William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 16201647, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knoph, 1952), 30, n. 2.




92


 .    . .:  , 1987. . 40.




93


 .    . .:  , 1987. . 118119.




94


 .    . .:  , 1987. . 54.




95


William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 16201647, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knopf, 1952), 37, n. 2.




96


William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 16201647, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knopf, 1952), 37, n. 2.




97


.    . . 58.




98


.    . . 61.




99


.    . . 60.




100


.    . . 6061.




101


.    . . 55.




102


Samuel Eliot Morison, introduction to Bradford, Plymouth Plantation, xxiv.




103


George D. Langdon, Pilgrim Colony: A History of New Plymouth, 16201691 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1966), 12.




104


.    . . 118119.




105


Langdon, Pilgrim Colony, 30.




106


Samuel Eliot Morison, The Story of the Old Colony of New Plymouth (New York: Knopf, 1960), 9596.




107


.    . . 118.




108


Jean Bodin, The Six Books Of A Commonweal, ed. Kenneth D. McRae (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1962), 11.




109


Ibid., 12, 707.




110


 .   . .: , 2001. .238239, 240.




111


John Wade, History of the Middle and Working Classes (1833; reprint, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1966), 429.




112


William Foster Lloyd, On the Checks to Population, in Managing the Commons, ed. Garrett Hardin and John Baden (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1977), chap. 3.




113


Harold Demsetz, Toward a Theory of Property Rights, American Economic Review 57 (May 1968): 347359; reprinted in Harold Demsetz, The Organization of Economic Activity, vol. I (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of Commons, Science 162 (December 13, 1968): 12431248; reprinted in Hardin and Baden, Managing the Commons.




114


Hardin, Tragedy of the Commons, 22.




115


Ibid., 20.




116


Ibid., 21.




117


Garrett Hardin, Property Rights: The Creative Reworking of Fiction, in Naked Emperors: Essays of a Taboo Stalker (Los Altos, Calif.: Wm. Kaufmann, 1982), 173182; . : Garrett Hardin, Filters Against Folly (New York: Viking Penguin, 1985), 89114.




118


Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990); Glenn G. Stevenson, Common Property Economics: A General Theory and Land Use Applications (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991); Matt Ridley, The Origins of Virtue (New York: Viking, 1996), chap. 12.




119


Robert C. Ellickson, Property in Land, Yale Law Journal 102 (1993): 1327-1328.




120


.: John A. Hostetler, Hutterite Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1974); Karl A. Peter, The Dynamics of Hutterite Society (Edmonton: Univ. of Alberta Press, 1987); William M. Kephart, Extraordinary Groups (New York: St. Martins Press, 1976).




121


Martin Buber, Paths in Utopia (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958), 139.




122


Amos Elon, The Israelis: Founders and Sons (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Pelican Books, 1983), 20.




123


Joel Brinkley, Debts Make Israelis Rethink an Ideal: The Kibbutz, New York Times, March 5, 1989; Daniel Williams, Down on the Kibbutz, Israelis Face a Financial Crisis, Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1989; Glenn Frankel, Farewell to the Kibbutz, Washington Post, July 9, 1989; Geraldine Brooks, Saving the Farm: The Israeli Kibbutz Takes a Capitalist Tack to Keep Socialist Ideals, Wall Street Journal, September 21, 1989.




124


      (-)   1990. .: Tom Bethel, Is the Kibbutz Kaput? in Free Minds & Free Markets, ed. Robert W. Poole, Jr., and Virginia I. Postrel (San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute, 1993), 8190.




125


James D. Gwartney and Richard L. Stroup, Economics: Private and Public Choice. 4th ed. (New York: Harcout Brace Jovanovivich, 1987), 670.




126


Birgir Runolfsson, Fencing the Oceans, Regulation (Summer 1997): 5762;  .: The Tragedy of the Ocean, Economist (March 19, 1994), 2124.




127


 . ,   . .: , 1993. . 25, . 35.        ,            ,     ,           .




128


 .   . .: , 1985. . 252.




129


Elon, The Israelis, 141.




130


              2000        (       ). ,            1985 .           .      ,  1875   . Alan Watson ed., The Digest of Justinian, 4 vols. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985). [           20022005     ( ).         (. .:  . .: , 1998),   . . . .]




131


Ibid., 1: xi.




132


Ibid., 1: 24.




133


Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism (London: Verso, 1974), 66.




134


 .      . .: , 2005. . 41.




135


  .    . . 6. 22.




136


.   . . 5. . 14.




137


 . . 6. . 3.




138


.  . .: , 1997. . 6.




139


. //. .  4- . . 3. .: , 1994. . 5. . 240.




140


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1262b.




141


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263.




142


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1261b.




143


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263.




144


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1264.




145


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263b.




146


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1329.




147


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1329b.




148


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1263.




149


. //. .  4- . . 4. .: , 1983. 1329b.




150


Tenney Frank, ed., An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, vol. 1 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1933), 14.




151


Justinian, Justinians Institutes, trans. P. Birks and G. McLeod (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1987), 59.




152


Alan Rodger, Owners and Neighbors in Roman Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 1.




153


Justininan, Codex, vii, 16.1.




154


     . .  , ,   ,  225   ..   4,4   600. .  43   ..   4,5   3  (P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C. A.D. 14 [London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1971], 121125).       ,          .        .          (Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism, 62).




155


Numa Fuesel de Coulanges, The Ancient City: A Study on the Religion, Laws and Institutions of Greece and Rome (1864), reprint (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1980), 5264.




156


Ibid., 6263.




157


. , 1270. [     .  ,  ,  :  ,        ,   . . .]




158


The Digest of Justinian, 2425.




159


M. I. Finley, ed., Studies in Roman Property (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 23.




160


M. I. Finley, ed., Studies in Roman Property (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 23.




161


M. I. Finley, ed., Studies in Roman Property (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 89.




162


L. P. Wilkinson, ed., Letters of Cicero: A Selection in Translation (New York: W. W. Norton, 1968), 145, 148.




163


Bruce W. Frier, Landlords and Tenants in Imperial Rome (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1980), 3439.




164


Finley, Roman Property, 73.




165


Ibid., 128.




166


Frier, Landlords and Tenants, 3233.




167


John A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1967), 142.




168


Ibid., 148.




169


. . . 15. 43.




170


 . . 2. 33.




171


Rodger, Owners and Neighbors, 210.




172


Digest of Justinian, 275.




173


Crook, Law and Life, 259, 263.




174


J. M. Riddle, ed., Tiberius Gracchus: Destroyer or Reformer of the Republic? (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1970), 113.




175


Ibid., 61.




176


Frank, Economic Survey, 221.




177


Anderson, Passages, 71.




178


 . .   //  . .  .  .  .  .  . . . .: , 1999. . 379.




179


 . .   //  . .  .  .  .  .  . . . .: , 1999. . 377.




180


 . .   //  . .  .  .  .  .  . . . .: , 1999. . 375.




181


 . .  . . 3. XXII.




182


 . .  . . I. .




183


Henry Hallam, View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, vol. 2 (1818; reprint, New York: W. J. Widdleton, 1874), 267.




184


Alexis de Tocqueville, De Tocquevilles Lancien re?gime (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1956), 184185.




185


Alan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978), 7, 8.




186


Ibid., 199200, 206, 170.




187


David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 200, 217; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969), 12, 1617.         ,       :   ,   ,      . ,        ,   XVIII       ,      ,     ,  ,      ,  . ,     ,   ,    ,    (David Frum, As the World Turns, Weekly Standard, April 27, 1998).




188


Vincent T. Delaney, ed., Frederic William Maitland Reader (New York: Oceana Publications, 1957), 4862.




189


Frederic W. Maitland, The Constitutional History of England (1908; reprint; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1955), 142.




190


Ibid., 142.




191


 ,  (.). . .




192


 (.). . .




193


Ibid., 156.




194


Eileen Power, Medieval People, 10th ed. (London: Methuen, 1964), 160.




195


Robert L. Heilbroner and Lester G. Thurow, The Economic Problem, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975), 17.




196


 .  //  .,  . . 2- . . 23. . 26, 27.




197


Macfarlane, Individualism, 195196.




198


John A. Pocock, The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957), 3334.




199


Hallam, Middle Ages, 2: 316.




200


Maitland, Constitutional History, 134135.




201


A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885; reprint; London: Macmillan, 1960), 199.




202


    . . .




203


Coke, 8 Rep. 118a (1610).




204


Frederick Pollock and Frederic W. Maitland, The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (1895; reprint; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968), I: 407.




205


Ibid., 408409.




206


Hallam, Middle Ages, 2: 328.




207


Maitland, Constitutional History, 125.




208


John E. A. Jolliffe, Constitutional History of Medieval England, 2nd ed. (London: A&C. Black, 1947), 334.




209


Frederic W. Maitland, Selected Historical Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957), 127.




210


Ibid., 137.




211


 III (12071272)   ,    12161272. . . .




212


Hallam, Middle Ages, 2: 329.




213


Charles H. Wilson, Economic History and the Historian (New York: Praeger, 1969), 120.




214


  ,  ,                   ,    ,             .  ,     - . Gallup Opinion Index, April 1971, No. 70.




215


 .    //  . .  3- . . 3. .: , 1988. . 9293.




216


 .    . . 2 //  . .  3- . . 3. .: , 1988. 222.




217


 . 27, 40.




218


John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1960), Laslett introduction.




219


P. S. Atiyah, The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 14.




220


 .       . .: , 2007. . 386, 392, 393.




221


Wilson, Economic History, chap. 7.




222


G. E. Mingay, Studies in Economic History: Enclosure and the Small Farmer in the Age of the Industrial Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1968), 1819.




223


 . . . I //  .,  . . 2- . . 23. . 00.




224


Atiyah, Freedom of Contract, 15.




225


Dicey, Constitution, 189.




226


 .       . .: , 2007. . 517.




227


 .       . .: , 2007. . 518.




228


David S. Landes, ed., The Rise of Capitalism (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 99.




229


 .    . .: , 1924. . 74.




230


Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2nd ed. 1979), 219, 220.




231


R. M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth (London: Methuen, 1971), 245, 247, 250.




232


John M. Davidson, Concerning Four Precursors of Henry George and the Single Tax (1899; reprint; Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1971).




233


James Boswell, Life of Samuel Johnson (New York: Doubleday, 1946), 270.




234


 . . .: , 1978. . 48.




235


 .-. . .: , 1969. . 72.




236


Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, in Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Basic Political Writings, trans. and ed. Donald A. Cress, Introduction by Peter Gay (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987), 25.




237


Joan McDonald, Rousseau and the French Revolution, 17621791 (London: Univ. of London Press, 1965).




238


       (1723),    ,  ,   :           .   .   ,  .             .  ,   , ,  ,        ,        .  .   . .: , 1974;  . .   ,   . . .: , 2007;  .       . .: , 2007. . 444.


