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  .         () .  , ,  ,  ,  ,       .  ,   ,    , ,        ,     ,  ,     .

,     , ,  ,      () ,      ,   .



Frank M. Snowden, 2019

Originally published byYale University Press

  , , .   -, 2023


* * *








 







  


  ,      ,    ,     .  COVID-19      ,      ,     ,      ,    .

 COVID-19,   ,   .     -  ,        ,    .   ,      ,    .   COVID-19  ,      . ,  8 ,     ,    ,      .    -           ,      .       ,      ,      .

    ,    .            ,     2013.    , ,    ,    ,  . -       ,     .    :     .       20142016.      , , .

,   ,    ,   2019.      ,    .          .  ,    ,         ,    ,       ,    .      ,  ,  ,       ,  .      ,         .  ,   ,  ,       (,  )    .

  ,   COVID-19,  頖      .       ,           . ʠ,  ,     ,    . ʠ,    COVID-19,      .            . 2008.   335  ,   1960 2004.,     .        AZ,    (Avian flu)    (Zika),  ,      ,  .  ,         H5N1 1997.  ,   ,     ,      . ,   ,   .    ,       .  ,  ,         ,     1918.    2012.,      (Spillover)[1 -  . . .: , 2016.]   ,    .

  ,   .    ,            .   2003 2016.     ,     (SARS),    (MERS),   .

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  ,         .  2018.,   ,         ,             .    ,       ,  ,           .       ,            .  2018.   ,          ,     SARS.    (AWorld atRisk),  2019., ,          .

 COVID-19    ,    ,    ,    .      :     ,    ,   ,    .        , ,   ,  1997., ,    -   :   ?   ,    ,  COVID-19 ,          .  ,   ,   ,  ,    堖     ,       .







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 1




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 ,   ,    : ࠖ  ,      , 젖   , 젖   , 堖      . ߠ  , -             ,    .




 2

 

  


    蠖       .   ,      ,     ( )     V. ..  XVIII. ..  ,     (.460. .. . 377. ..),   .    ,   60 ,     ,     .

   ,  , Π , Π ,  蠫Π,  [2 -   ,        . . . ..].     :     ,   ,  ,     ,   ,  , , ,   - .       ,    ,    ,     .  ,   , :  ,      .

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,     -    (18111886).  1830- .,     ,   ,   蠖  , ,    .    , ,   ,    .    ,       ( ),    ( -).          ,       ,    ,   ,        .

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     ,     .      .    - :   , ,       .

  

    堖   .            -   .     /  ,     . ,  ,       ,   ,  ,   .     ,    ,    [2 - "The Rev. Jerry Falwell," Guardian, May17, 2007, https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/may/17/broadcasting.guardianobituaries (https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/may/17/broadcasting.guardianobituaries)..].


   

     ,   ,   .     ,     ,   ,  .        .  ,   ,   ,     ,  .       ,       ,   ,  ,   ,      .  ,          ,  蠖   .  XVII.     ,   ,     ,           .    1690- .     ,         (TheCrucible).           1530- ,   :  ,    [3 - "Luther's Table Talk," Bartleby.com, https://www.bartleby.com/library/prose/3311.html, accessed August16, 2018.].

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    ⠖  ,     .      ,  ,   ,      .          1940- .  - :   ,     ,   .  ,     ,  ,    . ,    ,      .       [5 - Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, TheConquest ofEpidemic Disease: AChapter inthe History ofIdeas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943), 5556.].

      , , ,   .     ,   60      . ʠ          .  ,  iatroi, ,          .      ,      -  .       :      ,   , , , ,  ,  [6 - Vivian Nutton, "Healers andthe Healing Act inClassical Greece," European Review7, no. 1 (February1999):31.].

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     ,  ,  ,      (, ,  )          .    . ,      ,   ,      .       ,     .   ,   蠖     . ʠ,     , ,       - .  ,       ,        , ,  ,             ,    XIX.   , ,   .      .

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 3

   

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 ,  XX., 1957.,         .           .         ,          ,      .

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 :  

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    ,  ,    ,    .      ,    頖  ,  , ?   頖  ,    .    ꠫ , -      [9 - Procopius, Medieval Sourcebook: Procopius: ThePlague, 542, "History ofthe Wars, II.xxixxxiii" (scanned from History ofthe Wars, trans. H. B. Dewing, LoebLibrary ofthe Greek andRoman Classics [1914]), https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/542procopius-plague.asp, accessed September20, 2017.]. ,   ,     2050 .






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Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH



         () ,   堖   . ʠ  ,     ,             (Yersinia pestis),    . , 2005. ,  ,       VI.  ,  ,       (.3.2).

 :  

      1330- .,  1347.  ,   ,    1830- .     ,  1347 1353.,    ,      XVIII.    XIV    ,  ,   蠫 .  ,  ,     ,         ,    .

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        .         ,      .      ,         .     ,   :  ,   ,  ,   ,  ,    ,  ,   ,  ,    ,   , [10 - William Chester Jordan, TheGreat Famine: Northern Europe inthe Early Fourteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997),24.].   ,     .

       ,    .            1315 1322.   ,       , ,  1345 1348.,       .  , 13191320. - -       ,    ,        .       .     ,    ,   ,    .

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 4

 



 

   , ,    . Ӡ  ,     . 堖 ,  ,   Pasteurella pestis,     Yersinia pestis.    1894.    :   ,    ,    ,   ,  .

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     ,    蠖    ,     .       ,  ,  ,  ,   ,   .      ,          .    ,          ,              .  ,       ,     .   , -   ,   ,     ,   ,   ,    .        (Rattus rattus),  ,        , .

    ,        ,   ,   . ,     . 頖    (Xenopsylla cheopis),         ,         .  䠖     (Pulex irritans),    ,  .     .

           ,   .      .   Yersinia pestis  ,  .    ,    ,     .          ,     .         ,   ,  ,    . ʠ          .          .

 ,     ,  ,         , .       ,    ,   .         ,          ,   ,       .

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  ,           ,  ,   .       .           ,   ,    ,   ,      ,     ,  . ,    ,  , ,   .  , , ,        ,     ,    .      ,     .

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  (3301453.  )       ,    :    ,  , , , ,  .      ,  ,     -.    ,        ,  ,   .         ,    .  VI. ,    ,     [13 - Procopius, Medieval Sourcebook: Procopius: ThePlague, 542, "History ofthe Wars, II.xxixxxiii" (scanned from History ofthe Wars, trans. H. B. Dewing, LoebLibrary ofthe Greek andRoman Classics [1914]), https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/542procopius-plague.asp, accessed September20, 2017.].

 ,         .          ,   ⠫  .                   ,    .

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.4.1.        (1630) , , ,    . , 



 ,   XX.,     .         ,            ,       .

  XX.    -  . ,     -   .    ,         (),  ,  ,  .  ,   ,      .    ,  ,       .  ,   ,   .   堖 ,  ,    ,    .

     ,         .         ,   ,     .   , ,  ,    , ,    ,  .   ,      ,      .


 

 ,  ,     ,   .         . Ӡ    ,     ,   .    ,   ,      .    , ,  .

    ,   ,     ,         .     , ,   . Ѡ    ,  , , ,   .    .   , ,  ,     ,  .  ,      .       蠖 ,       .  ,  ,         ,   .

     ,   ,     ,    .      ,      .      ,      .

   .  XVI.     ,   , ࠫ  ,  ,  [14 - .: Andrew Cunningham andOlePeter Grell, TheFour Horsemen ofthe Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine andDeath inReformation Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000),283.].   ⠫   ,     ,     .   ,   ,    .     ,      [15 - .   1903. Giles F. Goldsbrough, ed., British Homeopathic Society 11 (London, 1903), 256;  2012, Theresa J. Ochoa andMiguel O'Ryan, "Etiologic Agents ofInfectious Diseases," inPrinciples andPractice ofPediatric Infectious Diseases, 4th ed. (Elsevier, 2012) (.ScienceDirect, "Bubo," https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/bubo (https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/bubo), accessed August17, 2018).]. ,   ,      , , , 堖  ,    .    ,   ,        . , ,             ,  1575.   :



    ,  ,   -     .  ,     -  ,  ,  ,     ,   , - ,  .      .  ,    .  ,       ,  ,  [16 - Jane L. Stevens Crawshaw, Plague Hospitals: Public Health forthe City inEarly Modern Venice (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012),143.].


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notes









1


 . . .: , 2016.




2


  ,        . . . ..




3


. 90:511.  .




4


. . . .




5


 .  . IV,  1. .. .




6


 .  . 5,  2. .. . -.




7


. . . .




8


. 3:3.




9


. 1:24.  .




10


          1940.     1941. ..










1


Homer, TheIliad, BookI, trans. Samuel Butler, http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.1.i.html (http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.1.i.html), accessed September20, 2017.




2


"The Rev. Jerry Falwell," Guardian, May17, 2007, https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/may/17/broadcasting.guardianobituaries (https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/may/17/broadcasting.guardianobituaries)..




3


"Luther's Table Talk," Bartleby.com, https://www.bartleby.com/library/prose/3311.html, accessed August16, 2018.




4


Hippocrates, "On theSacred Disease," trans. Francis Adams, http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html (http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html), accessed September17, 2017.




5


Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, TheConquest ofEpidemic Disease: AChapter inthe History ofIdeas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943), 5556.




6


Vivian Nutton, "Healers andthe Healing Act inClassical Greece," European Review7, no. 1 (February1999):31.




7


 Vivian Nutton, "The Fortunes ofGalen," inR. J. Hankinson, ed., TheCambridge Companion toGalen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008),361.




8


,355.




9


Procopius, Medieval Sourcebook: Procopius: ThePlague, 542, "History ofthe Wars, II.xxixxxiii" (scanned from History ofthe Wars, trans. H. B. Dewing, LoebLibrary ofthe Greek andRoman Classics [1914]), https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/542procopius-plague.asp, accessed September20, 2017.




10


William Chester Jordan, TheGreat Famine: Northern Europe inthe Early Fourteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997),24.




11


Per Lager?s, Environment, Society andthe Black Death: AnInterdisciplinary Approach tothe Late-Medieval Crisis inSweden (Oxford: Oxbow, 2016),8.




12


,7.




13


Procopius, Medieval Sourcebook: Procopius: ThePlague, 542, "History ofthe Wars, II.xxixxxiii" (scanned from History ofthe Wars, trans. H. B. Dewing, LoebLibrary ofthe Greek andRoman Classics [1914]), https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/542procopius-plague.asp, accessed September20, 2017.




14


.: Andrew Cunningham andOlePeter Grell, TheFour Horsemen ofthe Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine andDeath inReformation Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000),283.




15


.   1903. Giles F. Goldsbrough, ed., British Homeopathic Society 11 (London, 1903), 256;  2012, Theresa J. Ochoa andMiguel O'Ryan, "Etiologic Agents ofInfectious Diseases," inPrinciples andPractice ofPediatric Infectious Diseases, 4th ed. (Elsevier, 2012) (.ScienceDirect, "Bubo," https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/bubo (https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/bubo), accessed August17, 2018).




16


Jane L. Stevens Crawshaw, Plague Hospitals: Public Health forthe City inEarly Modern Venice (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012),143.




17


Rodrigo J. Gonzalez andVirginia L. Miller, "A Deadly Path: Bacterial Spread during Bubonic Plague," Trends inMicrobiology 24, no. 4 (April2016): 239241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2016.01.010 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2016.01.010).




18


Rachel C. Abbott andTonie E. Rocke, Plague, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1372, National Wildlife Health Center 2012, p.7, https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1372/ (https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1372/), last modified November23, 2016.




19


Michael ofPiazza  Susan Scott andChristopher J. Duncan, Return ofthe Black Death: TheWorld's Greatest Serial Killer (Chichester: Wiley, 2004), 1415.




20


Roger D. Pechous, Vijay Sivaraman, Nikolas M. Stasulli, andWilliam E. Goldman, "Pneumonic Plague: TheDarker Side ofYersinia pestis," Trends inMicrobiology 24, no. 3 (March2016): 194,196.




21


M.Drancourt, "Finally Plague IsPlague," Clinical Microbiology andInfection 18, no. 2 (February2012):105.




22


Giovanni Boccaccio, Medieval Sourcebook: Boccaccio: TheDecameronIntroduction (scanned from TheDecameron, trans. M. Rigg[London, 1921]), https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/boccacio2.asp, accessed August18, 2018.


