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Kate Crawford

Atlas of AI

Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence


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         .    :    ,  ,   ,   ,    .   ,               .     ?        .    ?   ,         .      , , :   .      .    ?  1904      ,   New York Times     ,   ,  [1 - Heyn, Berlins Wonderful Horse.].

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  ,      ,              .              .      ,   , ,    .      ,     ,    ,      ,        .    ,     ,  ,   ,                    [2 - Pfungst, Clever Hans.].

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      1911 ,    : ,     ,  ,      ,     ,     [4 - Pfungst, Clever Hans.].          .        ,  ,  ,  ,  ,     .   ,  ,     [5 - Pfungst.].      ,    ,         .

      :   ,   ;  ; ;     .                   ,          .           ,      ,        .               ,             [6 - Lapuschkin et al., Unmasking Clever Hans Predictors.].  , ,  ,      ,         .

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    .      ,    (    )    .    ,              ,     ,       .     ,     ,  ;        , ,    .                       [7 - See the work of philosopher Val Plumwood on the dualisms of intelligence-stupid, emotional-rational, and master-slave. Plumwood, Politics of Reason.].

       ,    ,         ,      .  ,           ,         ,   .

 1950    ,            ,       ,    [8 - Turing, Computing Machinery and Intelligence.].      1958  ,         [9 - Von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain, 44. This approach was deeply critiqued by Dreyfus, What Computers Cant Do.].            ,    , : ,   ;    ,  哻[10 - See Weizenbaum, On the Impact of the Computer on Society, After his death, Minsky was implicated in serious allegations related to convicted pedophile and rapist Jeffrey Epstein. Minsky was one of several scientists who met with Epstein and visited his island retreat where underage girls were forced to have sex with members of Epsteins coterie. As scholar Meredith Broussard observes, this was part of a broader culture of exclusion that became endemic in AI: As wonderfully creative as Minsky and his cohort were, they also solidified the culture of tech as a billionaire boys club. Math, physics, and the other hard sciences have never been hospitable to women and people of color; tech followed this lead. See Broussard, Artificial Unintelligence, 174.].    ,       .  ,        -,   ELIZA, ,                   ,     ,     [11 - Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason, 2023.].

         .  1961               .   -,   , . . . ,  ,  ,     ,       .      ,        .      ,         [12 - Greenberger, Management and the Computer of the Future, 315.].

       ,  ,        ,      ,  [13 - Dreyfus, Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence.].            ,               ,    ,         [14 - Dreyfus, What Computers Cant Do.]. ,      ,     ,       ,    .

 1960-     ,             .        ,     .   2000-          .              ,           .

        ,       .        : ,    .       ,     ,       .       , ,      ,           ,     [15 - Ullman, Life in Code, 13637.].       :    ,   ,       .


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   :    ?    -  ,    Siri  Apple,   Amazon,  Tesla    Google.          ,      ,       ,    ,    ,       ,       [16 - See, as one of many examples, Poggio et al., Why and When Can Deep  but Not Shallow  Networks Avoid the Curse of Dimensionality.].  1978 ,   ,        ,        ,     ,  - ,  ,   , -   [17 - Quoted in Gill, Artificial Intelligence for Society, 3.].               ,          .       ,  .              [18 - Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 30.].

       ,   ,    , ,   .        ,      .             -,   ,         ,    .        ,    ,      ,         .

,     ,      - ,  . ,       ,    , ,  , , ,   .     ,     -  ,               .  ,    ,           .  - ,     ,   ,   ,           .         .

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          ?      .        ,           .  , , ,     - ,   ,  ,  ,       .      ,      ,         [19 - Daston, Cloud Physiognomy.].            , ,         .

        ,  ,    ,   .    -   -,          .   ,  ,     ,     -  [20 - Didi-Huberman, Atlas, 5.].        , -       ,    ,       [21 - Didi-Huberman, 11.].

             :     :    ,          ;       [22 - Franklin and Swenarchuk, Ursula Franklin Reader, Prelude.].

     ,   ,         .     ,   ,        :              .   ,   ,         .    ,    ,       ;   ,    ;   ;          ,   .      .       ,            .    ,       ,        ,     [23 - For an account of the practices of data colonization, see Colonized by Data; and Mbemb, Critique of Black Reason.].

     .           .    ,    .       ,      ,   .               .   -     ImageNet  ,        [24 - Fei-Fei Li quoted in Gershgorn, Data That Transformed AI Research.].           : ,     ;    [25 - Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 1.].                 :        [26 - Bledsoe quoted in McCorduck, Machines Who Think, 136.].    ,     ,   .        :  ,     ,  ,       .

   , ,     ,    .     ,    ,    .          : ,      , ,      .             ,    ,               ,      [27 - Mattern, Code and Clay, Data and Dirt, xxxiv-xxxv.].

        .         ,        ,       [28 - Ananny and Crawford, Seeing without Knowing.].      .         ,  ,   ,      .     . ,       ,    ,     ,   ,     .

     ,     ,    ,                   .            :       ,      [29 - Any list will always be an inadequate account of all the people and communities who have inspired and informed this work. Im particularly grateful to these research communities: FATE (Fairness, Accountability, Transparency and Ethics) and the Social Media Collective at Microsoft Research, the AI Now Institute at NYU, the Foundations of AI working group at the cole Normale Suprieure, and the Richard von Weizs?cker Visiting Fellows at the Robert Bosch Academy in Berlin.].   ,      ,   ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,   ,  ,   .            ,   ,   ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  -,  ,  ,  , - ,  ,      .

   ,       ,    .          ,       .             :           .         ,         ,    ,       [30 - Saville, Towards Humble Geographies.].






Mappa mundi  ,        ,         .   Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae (, 1581)



    ,        .        ,        .        ,         .            ,        ,         .    mappae mundi ( .  ),          ,   , ,   ,   ,     .            ,    ,       .


 

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   ,       .    ,     ,      ,      [31 - For more on crowdworkers, see Gray and Suri, Ghost Work; and Roberts, Behind the Screen.].       Amazon,          .    -  ,         .    ,     ,      .

     .                  [32 - Canales, Tenth of a Second.].     TrueTime  Google         .    ,             .        ,   ,   .

    .                ,      .    ,   ,  ,    ,  ,     1990- ,       ,   ,   ,     .          ,    ,         .          ,          ,    [33 - Zuboff, Age of Surveillance Capitalism.].

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      - ,         ,           .          ,       ,      .          ,    ,  ,  ,    [35 - Emotion Detection and Recognition (EDR) Market Size.].         ,     ,       .   ,    ,       ,    .

    ,          .         ,     .         ,      .    ,   ,            ,  ,        .  ,   ,       ,          .

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    ,           .   :   ?     ?    ,      ?       ? ,        .          .            [37 - Danowski and de Castro, Ends of the World.].    :  ,   ,           [38 - Franklin, Real World of Technology, 5.].

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 1




Boeing 757   ,     -.   ,     - ,         .        .    - Apple     ,   .      Google,      . -,       ,      -  ,   Google   (  ),        .   Google     Lockheed Martin,         ,      . ,   ,    ,        .    Facebook.             -     ,   .                .

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          .    --       ,             .           -.                    ,   .              .  ,    ,  ,       .         ,     .    265  ,     VORTAC        ,     GPS.    :       ,       .

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        ,    XIX    -.   ,   ,     ,       ,     .      , -               1800- [39 - Brechin, Imperial San Francisco.].          -  1848    - ,     ,       .   ,        ,     [40 - Brechin, 29.].              .       ,            .

        ,       :   ,    ,   ,  .  1555   ,    , : ,       ,   [41 - Agricola quoted in Brechin, 25.].  , ,       ,    ,     ,  ,     .     ,      ,  ,    ,   ?    ,     :     .        .      , ,      1869 : , ,   ,  ,      ,     ,  [ ].     ,     .     [42 - Quoted in Brechin, 50.].

 -     ,    ,    .     ,          ,    ,   .         .             ,     .  ,        ,    ,         [43 - Brechin, 69.].     -    . ,     ,     ;    ,        .

-  . -     ;       ,   .       [44 - See, e. g., Davies and Young, Tales from the Dark Side of the City; and Grey Goldmine.].                     : Apple, Microsoft, Amazon, Facebook  Google.       ,  -    ,    ,  ,   ,     ,    ,      -  -[45 - For more on the street-level changes in San Francisco, see Bloomfield, History of the California Historical Societys New Mission Street Neighborhood.].        -,       ,     ,   ,   .     -        [46 - Street Homelessness. See also Counterpoints: An Atlas of Displacement and Resistance.].            ,         ,    ,      ,  [47 - Gee, San Francisco or Mumbai?]. ,        .

     , -  -, , ,   :    .      :                 .   :    ,    ,       .          ,    ,    ,   , ,   .       , ,  ,             .    ,         .


 

      ,       .        ,  ,   USB-,         .     -        .     ,   ,   ,  ,    [48 - H.W. Turner published a detailed geological survey of the Silver Peak area in July 1909. In beautiful prose, Turner extolled the geological variety within what he described as slopes of cream and pink tuffs, and little hillocks of a bright brick red. Turner, Contribution to the Geology of the Silver Peak Quadrangle, Nevada, 228.].    ,          ,   .             ,         .

 2014   Rockwood Holdings, Inc.,   ,      Albemarle Corporation  6,2   .        . -              :  .       . ,          .    Tesla Model S       [49 - Lambert, Breakdown of Raw Materials in Teslas Batteries and Possible Breaknecks.].          ,  ,             [50 - Bullis, Lithium-Ion Battery.].           .

       -   Tesla Gigafactory.         . Tesla   -     ,       Panasonic  Samsung,          .  , Tesla               [51 - Chinese Lithium Giant Agrees to Three-Year Pact to Supply Tesla.]. , Tesla         ,   [52 - Wald, Tesla Is a Battery Business.].     ,  ,   ,    ,          [53 - Scheyder, Tesla Expects Global Shortage.].            .

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       .        ,    ,           ,      . -       ,         .         ,    ,         .            .     ,   ,  ,  ,            .        ,     .

      ,   .            . ,      ,         ,  ,   .       ,              [56 - Whittaker et al., AI Now Report 2018.].       ,     ,     .

                 ,       ,     [57 - Parikka, Geology of Media, vii  viii; McLuhan, Understanding Media.].       ( ) ,                    .                ,      .        ,         ,    ,        .

    ,     ,       ,   ,  Amazon Echo  iPhone,        .    ,        4,7 [58 - Ely, Life Expectancy of Electronics.].        ,          .      ,         , , ,    ,       . ,    ,   ,   ,    .             ,    .             :       ,      .       ,      .

,    -,        [59 - Sandro Mezzadra and Brett Neilson use the term extractivism to name the relation between different forms of extractive operations in contemporary capitalism, which we see repeated in the context of the AI industry. Mezzadra and Neilson, Multiple Frontiers of Extraction.].        :   ,       ,          ,          .        ,   .        ,         ,        ,   .


 

        ,          .   ,    -         , ,    ,   , ,     .          ,          .

 2020             ,    ,  ,    ,   ,   , [60 - Nassar et al., Evaluating the Mineral Commodity Supply Risk of the US Manufacturing Sector.].           ,     iPhone   ; ,          ;  ,   - .

   : , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,   .        ,     .       , ,  ,  ,      .                      GPS.              .         .    ,     ,          ,  .   ,           [61 - Mumford, Technics and Civilization, 74.].    ,     ,   ,      .

  ,       ,    ,    .  - 2010          2008 .           ,   ,    ,      .  ,  , ,         ,   ,           [62 - See, e. g., Ayogu and Lewis, Conflict Minerals.].    ,            .               ,        [63 - Burke, Congo Violence Fuels Fears of Return to 90s Bloodbath.].  ,         [64 - Congo s Bloody Coltan.].

Intel      ,        [65 - Congo s Bloody Coltan.].   Intel :               ,      ,      [66 - Transforming Intels Supply Chain with Real-Time Analytics.].  , Intel  Apple    ,           ,    .           ,     .  ,          [67 - See, e. g., an open letter from seventy signatories that criticizes the limitations of the so-called conflict-free certification process: An Open Letter.].

   Philips  ,     ,      .   Intel, Philips    ,         [68 - Responsible Minerals Policy and Due Diligence.].        ,       .  ,   ,      ,      ,      ,    ,        [69 - In The Elements of Power, David S. Abraham describes the invisible networks of rare metals traders in global electronics supply chains: The network to get rare metals from the mine to your laptop travels through a murky network of traders, processors, and component manufacturers. Traders are the middlemen who do more than buy and sell rare metals: they help to regulate information and are the hidden link that helps in navigating the network between metals plants and the components in our laptops [89].].

    Dell,              ,   .         ,           ,        ,   [70 - Responsible Minerals Sourcing.].

 ,  -  XIX ,             .      ,   ,         ,   ,      .         :     ,   , ,   ,       .

               ,         .    ,          .     ,    ,    ,     ,     .       ,       ,        ,  -      .


    

 ,    ,   ,    .        ,        .     180     [71 - Liu, Chinese Mining Dump.].          -, ,  ,   70     .       [72 - Bayan Obo Deposit.].

  95      .    ,     ,    ,          [73 - Maughan, Dystopian Lake Filled by the Worlds Tech Lust.].   ,     ,  ,           .       ,      .      ,  ,  -    ,     [74 - Hird, Waste, Landfills, and an Environmental Ethics of Vulnerability, 105.].

    ,              ,         .              , ,     .  :  0,2       .  ,  99,8  ,     ,    ,  ,       .        ,   [75 - Abraham, Elements of Power, 175.].       ,      ,  75000        [76 - Abraham, 176.].

               ,    .     90   ,   .          ,  .     PT Timah     ,  Samsung,     Chernan  Shenmao,       Sony, LG  Foxconn    Apple, Tesla  Amazon.[77 - Simpson, Deadly Tin Inside Your Smartphone.]

      ,    ,    ,     ,            ,    .     ,      ,    ,    ,    ,  Timah[78 - Hodal, Death Metal.].            .   -  :     ,   ,    ,     ,      ,     .      :          . ,    ,   ,       ,       [79 - Hodal.].  :  ,  ,   ,  .    .

      ,    ,    ,   .    ,  ,     .       ,      ,    ,                     .

      ,    .            ,     .          ,     .       -    Palaquium gutta    .  ,     ,  -  ,  .     1848        Philosophical Magazine         ,      .         ,           .          ,          .

            Palaquium gutta.    ,   ,                [80 - Tully, Victorian Ecological Disaster.].            ,       ,    .      :               ,  ,   [81 - Starosielski, Undersea Network, 34.].              [82 - See Couldry and Mej?as, Costs of Connection, 46.].

       .   1857       4500          250  .          .      ;   1880-  Palaquium gutta .         1883      ,       [83 - Couldry and Mej?as, 574.].

        ,       ,     [84 - For a superb account of the history of undersea cables, see Starosielski, Undersea Network.].       ,                 .

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   ,    ,    ,           ,        .  ,   ,       ,       ,         ,                [85 - Dryer, Designing Certainty, 45.].

  ,   1930-       ,        ,          .      ,  -    [86 - Dryer, 46.].        ,        ,             [87 - Dryer, 266-68.].    ,  ,               ,       ,      .


   

     ,     -   .         ,      ;           ,  [88 - More people are now drawing attention to this problem  including researchers at AI Now. See Dobbe and Whittaker, AI and Climate Change.].       ,       ,     .       ,         ,   ,       .              .        Amazon Web Services  Microsoft Azure    ,     ,    ,  [89 - See, as an example of early scholarship in this area, Ensmenger, Computation, Materiality, and the Global Environment.].

        :    ,  ,        ,     ,      [90 - Hu, Prehistory of the Cloud, 146.].         . ,    ,             .                  ,     [91 - Jones, How to Stop Data Centres from Gobbling Up the Worlds Electricity. Some progress has been made toward mitigating these concerns through greater energy efficiency practices, but significant long-term challenges remain. Masanet et al., Recalibrating Global Data Center Energy  Use Estimates.].  :  ,      , ,   2040       14     ,      ,          2030     15 [92 - Belkhir and Elmeligi, Assessing ICT Global Emissions Footprint; Andrae and Edler, On Global Electricity Usage.].

   ,     ,  ,            .         , ,        .                       2019 .           (NLP),               [93 - Strubell, Ganesh, and McCallum, Energy and Policy Considerations for Deep Learning in NLP.].    .   ,      NLP     660000   ,    ,   ,      ( ),  125      -  [94 - Strubell, Ganesh, and McCallum.].

 ,  ,    ,  ,   .      ,     ,  Apple  Amazon,          NLP  ,   ,   Siri  Alexa,   .    ,      , ;        .         .

           ,    ,     .      DeepMind: ,  ,      ,    [95 - Sutton, Bitter Lesson.].                      ,      .   OpenAI,  2012   ,      ,     .    ,                [96 - AI and Compute.].                       .        .

          [97 - Cook et al., Clicking Clean.].            , ,    .           : Apple  Google      ( ,        ),  Microsoft   -  2030 .           ,          [98 - Ghaffary, More Than 1,000 Google Employees Signed a Letter. See also Apple Commits to Be 100 Percent Carbon Neutral; Harrabin, Google Says Its Carbon Footprint Is Now Zero; Smith, Microsoft Will Be Carbon Negative by 2030.].  , Microsoft, Google  Amazon     ,     ,   ,          ,     ,      .

         .       73    ,   2018   99   CO2[99 - Powering the Cloud.]. ,   2023            [100 - Powering the Cloud.].            , ,    ,  Alibaba, Tencent  GDS,            [101 - Powering the Cloud.].      ,    .              .

        .          , ,      , ,    ,   .             ()  ,  .    2013 ,              . ,    ,     ,  ,         1,2   .            ,       ,  Citizenfour:  ,        .             ,     .

          ,       [102 - Hogan, Data Flows and Water Woes.].         1,7.    ,      ,        ,       .    ,     ,   ,            [103 - Off Now.].         ,                [104 - Carlisle, Shutting Off NSAs Water Gains Support.].            ,       .    ,        ,        : ,     ,      ,   .

           ,            ,        .   ,       ,         ,        ,        .    ,   ,   ,        ,     .


 

       ,     .          ,   ,   ,          . ,  ,   ,     , , ,     [105 - Materiality is a complex concept, and there is a lengthy literature that contends with it in such fields as STS, anthropology, and media studies. In one sense, materiality refers to what Leah Lievrouw describes as the physical character and existence of objects and artifacts that makes them useful and usable for certain purposes under particular conditions. Lievrouw quoted in Gillespie, Boczkowski, and Foot, Media Technologies, 25. But as Diana Coole and Samantha Frost write, Materiality is always something more than mere matter: an excess, force, vitality, relationality, or difference that renders matter active, self-creative, productive, unproductive. Coole and Frost, New Materialisms, 9.].     ,   ,  Amazon,           :  .   ,      ,   ,    ,         ,         .

   (         ,    )     , ,   ,         .       ,   ,     ,                .  2017         250  - ,       ,   Maersk,  Mediterranean Shipping Company   CMA CGM Group,      [106 - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Review of Maritime Transport, 2017.].                ,       .   ,           ,        .        [107 - George, Ninety Percent of Everything, 4.].

      3,1      ,  ,     [108 - Schlanger, If Shipping Were a Country.].      ,   ,      ,            .  ,         ,     ,           [109 - Vidal, Health Risks of Shipping Pollution.].

     ,    , ,     ,        [110 - Containers Lost at Sea2017 Update.].     ,    ;      ,           [111 - Adams, Lost at Sea.].        ,           .

        ,     .            ,     ,  ,    .    ,    ,        .        ,       ,   ,      .       ,        . ,   Ȼ,         ,   ,         .      ,       ,   ,         .


  

  1960-          ,  ,   ,    ,     [112 - Mumford, Myth of the Machine.].  ,      ,       ,     ,           .    130000       ,  ,     (   ) 237000 ,       1945 .      ,   ,    .

       ,   ,    ,     ,     ,   .  ,      ,     ,      .  :    ,    ;         ;      ;  ,   ;  ,   ;    .      .

      ,    ,      .    ,       ,  ,    ,  :     ,      .       [113 - Labban, Deterritorializing Extraction. For an expansion on this idea, see Arboleda, Planetary Mine.].       ,        . ,  ,          ,           .

  ,         ,               .    ,  .     ,   ,     ,   .  , ,      ,  ,           .       ,     :  ,     ,        ,      [114 - Ananny and Crawford, Seeing without Knowing.].  ,                       ,    .     ,     .

      -.    ,     ,     .     174,         .  1906     Silver Pick     .  ,           ,      .                   : .             ,          .   .       ,   ,     .         ,        .  1918     .    -  .            .






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               ,         .   Amazon            ,   ,   .      ,    .         .  Amazon      ,     .   ,     Amazon ,   ,   .           ,       ,        . ,  ,   [115 - Wilson, Amazon and Target Race.].  ,      ,       ,      .   ,       ,          .    ,     .     , , ,          .

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  ,        ,      .                ,     .  1980-      ,        ,   Siri, Cortana  Alexa[116 - Lingel and Crawford, Alexa, Tell Me about Your Mother.].    ,    , ,  ,     ,     ,          (        ,     ,       )[117 - Federici, Wages against Housework; Gregg, Counterproductive.].  ,    ,        ,    [118 - In The Utopia of Rules, David Graeber details the sense of loss experienced by white-collar workers who now have to enter data into the decision-making systems that have replaced specialist administrative support staff in most professional workplaces.].

          ,           .      .                ?      ,      .    ,  ,    ,    ,            .

             ,         ,     1890-     XX .          ,         ,   ,    . ,        ,   .            ,    ,              .        .      ,    ,             ,      .

      ;              .       XVIII                   [119 - Smith, Wealth of Nations, 45.].  , ,        ,        .  ,      ,         ,  ,      .                .

    ,        ,    ,          .              .     ,         ,      ,     .  , ,     ,      ,       .             ,              .   ,     1848  ,              [120 - Marx and Engels, Marx-Engels Reader, 479. Marx expanded on this notion of the worker as an appendage in Capital, vol. 1: In handicrafts and manufacture, the worker makes use of a tool; in the factory, the machine makes use of him. There the movements of the instrument of labor proceed from him, here it is the movements of the machine that he must follow. In manufacture the workers are parts of a living mechanism. In the factory we have a lifeless mechanism which is independent of the workers, who are incorporated into it as its living appendages. Marx, Das Kapital, 54849.].

       ,         ,     ,    .  ,       ,          ,           [121 - Luxemburg, Practical Economies, 444.].

       .  . .      ,             [122 - Thompson, Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.].         , ,     ,       .      :                ,            [123 - Thompson, 8890.].       ,     :   ,         .            ,     ,    .  1800-         ,      .        .

              .                ,      ,       ,      .   1780-     -   ,      ,               ,    ,      .  ,          . ,   -,   ,               .           ,  [124 - Werrett, Potemkin and the Panopticon, 6.].   ,    ,    ,             .     , -  ,                 ,         [125 - See, e. g., Cooper, Portsmouth System of Manufacture.].

               ,       .                [126 - Foucault, Discipline and Punish; Horne and Maly, Inspection House.].         ,     .

              , ,    ,    .    ,   ,  ,        ,            .      ,         ,     ,       ,        ,   .

    .          .           ,  ,       .        ,       ,         .           [127 - Mirzoeff, Right to Look, 58.].      1814 ,     ,         ;     ,       [128 - Mirzoeff, 55.].           ,                 [129 - Mirzoeff, 56.].

           .          ,       ,     ,         ,     ,       .         ,       (   ,    ),      ,      .       ,        .                    ,       ,     .


   - Mechanical Turk

            ,    ,     .      :    ,         .         ,    ,            ,    ,        .           [130 - Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.].     ,  [131 - Irani, Hidden Faces of Automation.].         ,     ,     ,             .    ,      ,       ,    [132 - Yuan, How Cheap Labor Drives Chinas A.?I. Ambitions; Gray and Suri, Humans Working behind the AI Curtain.].

       ,       .   ,     ,   3500   75 ,           ,   Amazon Mechanical Turk, Figure Eight, Microworkers  Clickworker.  ,         ,    ,      ,        [133 - Berg et al., Digital Labour Platforms.].  , ,                  .     ,      ,         [134 - Roberts, Behind the Screen; Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet, 11140.].

 ,        .             ,      .    2008  2016                    , ,   2005   Mechanical Turk.         ,     ,     ,       [135 - Silberman et al., Responsible Research with Crowds.].

,         .  ,   ,             ,        ,             (    ).       , ,     ,  , ,   ,    ,          ,       [136 - Silberman et al.].  ,        ,                 .

       .  x.ai,    , ,  -             .    Bloomberg,    , ,      .       ,    .  ,   Facebook, M,         ,        [137 - Huet, Humans Hiding behind the Chatbots.].

    .  x.ai       ,   ,    ,      .       ,     .  ,      - ,  ,     [138 - Huet.].

             ,           ,        [139 - See Sadowski, Potemkin AI.].        ,         ,    ,    .           ,   ,        .    ,        ,       ,     .

      ,      , [140 - Taylor, Automation Charade.]. ,     ,    ,            .                 ,   ,  ,   ,            .  ,  -,      ,        ,     ,        [141 - Taylor.].       ,             ,       .          ,     .

      ?        ,  ,   ,  ,    .      ,         ,    .     ,      ,   ,      ,              .

      , ,         ,        ,      . ,          ,    ,      .       ,      [142 - Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.].     ,         ,       .        , ,   .

 1770          .        ,    .  ,   ,      .           ,         ,      ,    .    ,      ,     [143 - Standage, Turk, 23.].       ,   ,             [144 - Standage, 23.].       (Mechanical Turk). ,  ,       :      ,   .

 250     .  Amazon     ,   , Amazon Mechanical Turk,       .   Amazon         ,       [145 - See, e. g., Aytes, Return of the Crowds, 80.].   Amazon   Mechanical Turk  -      ,           .             ,       [146 - Irani, Difference and Dependence among Digital Workers, 225.].  Mechanical Turk        ,        . Mechanical Turk     ,        ,     .  ,   Amazon      Ȼ[147 - Pontin, Artificial Intelligence.].

     .     :          ,    -   ,          .   , ,     - .      ,    ,           .   ,          -,       .

,      ,   ,          -       reCAPTCHA  Google.         ,   .       Google.            ,               .

       ,  .          ,   ,       -,      Mechanical Turk      .   ,   ,            .


      : ,   

        .  1820-          ,       .  1830-       ,           [148 - Menabrea and Lovelace, Sketch of the Analytical Engine.].

                        .                .    , ,         .   ,       ,   .        ,             .

          ,   ,               [149 - Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, 3943.].   ,   ,               [150 - Babbage evidently acquired an interest in quality-control processes while trying (vainly) to establish a reliable supply chain for the components of his calculating engines.].     .    ,       ,              .

        ,        .           ,    .   , ,         ,      .     ,               .

  ,          :       ,   ,    ,   -  , ,   .     ,      ,       .      ,     [151 - Schaffer, Babbages Calculating Engines and the Factory System, 280.].         :      .

  , ,    ,       ,      .      .    ,         .                   .  ,      ,    ,     ,  , ,       .    : ,    -,  ,   ,   ,   [152 - Taylor, Peoples Platform, 42.].      :    -  ,      .       ,          .  , 94      ,     2005  2015 ,      ,        [153 - Katz and Krueger, Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements.].        ,    ,    ,       .


 

    ,      ,      1870- .      ;       ;              ,  ,      .             -[154 - Rehmann, Taylorism and Fordism in the Stockyards, 26.].     ,             ,   ,      ,     [155 - Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 56, 67; Specht, Red Meat Republic.].             .      ,    ,  .

    ,      ,     .       -     ,     .                   1906     .      .  ,     ,  ,    ,        ,    ,  .    ,     :   ,         ,    ,     ,      .






  Armour Beef, 1952 .    



        :  ,         ,    ,   .         ,              .                     ,          .

,      ,             ,    -.       ,    ,      ,     .                   .        [156 - Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management.].        :   ,   ; ,  ,   [157 - Marx, Poverty of Philosophy, 22.].

Foxconn,       ,   Apple iPhone   iPad,    ,      ,    . Foxconn           2010 [158 - Qiu, Gregg, and Crawford, Circuits of Labour; Qiu, Goodbye iSlave.].        ,  ,     :      ,        [159 - Markoff, Skilled Work, without the Worker.].

       .          .  McDonalds     ,        ,            [160 - Guendelsberger, On the Clock, 22.].        .   (    ,   ,  )      ,     .

  ,   McDonalds   ,       .   ,        ,    ,                .  2014       McDonalds   ,     ,          ,     ,   [161 - Greenhouse, McDonalds Workers File Wage Suits.].  ,       ,     ,      ,     .       ,   ,             [162 - Greenhouse.].

          ( )         ,   .     ,          .       ,       .


 ,  

      ,    McDonalds   ,    , ,   ,            . ,           .              McDonalds,           .              .           [163 - Mayhew and Quinlan, Fordism in the Fast Food Industry.].

     Ford   ,    ,  ( ).         ,       ,    ,   . ,     ,      ,          [164 - Ajunwa, Crawford, and Schultz, Limitless Worker Surveillance.].

       ,     .      ,         ,    .    ,     ,        .     ,  ,       ,    ,  ,      -    ,   . WeWork,      ,     2019 .                .    2019   Euclid,   ,  ,  ,             [165 - Mikel, WeWork Just Made a Disturbing Acquisition.]. Dominos Pizza       ,         [166 - Mahdawi, Dominos Pizza Checker Is Just the Beginning.].            ,      ;     ,        ;         .

            ,            [167 - Wajcman, How Silicon Valley Sets Time.].       ,     .    ,          [168 - Wajcman, 1277.].  ,   ,   -,       ,  ,       ,      .      ,    ,     .


 

           . ,    (MAP)  General Motors           ,   [169 - Gora, Herzog, and Tripathi, Clock Synchronization.].    ,     ,       ethernet  TCP/IP,     (NTP) , ,    (PTP),           .  NTP,  PTP       ,       .

 -  -      .           1904 ,       [170 - Eglash, Broken Metaphor, 361.].       1960- ,   ,      ,      .                        .      Science  1968 : -,       ,    ( )    .  ,                  [171 - Kemeny and Kurtz, Dartmouth Timesharing, 223.].    ,    ,        .    ,            [172 - Eglash, Broken Metaphor, 364.].

 -          Python,  ,    ,  Github,     .            . Spanner  Google    ,    ,  ,  ,    .  ,   Gmail,  Google,      Google.

   , Spanner          .     ,    GPS-.       ,     .     ?          ,        ,      . Google       TrueTime.

TrueTime           ,    ,    .      ,  GPS-   ,      ,      , TrueTime          [173 - Brewer, Spanner, TrueTime.].

       ,  TrueTime         .   , Spanner ,   ,   Google[174 - Corbett et al., Spanner, 14, cited in House, Synchronizing Uncertainty, 124.].      ,               .          ,        ,      ,     . TrueTime            .  ,        ,     , Google      .

          , ,      XIX .     1849        ,  William Bond & Son.[175 - Galison, Einsteins Clocks, Poincars Maps, 104.]     ,             ,      ,      New York & New England         ,    [176 - Galison, 112.].      1853           ,   ,         .

   ,     ,    .  1889    ,         [177 - Colligan and Linley, Media, Technology, and Literature, 246.]




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/book/keyt-krouford/atlas-iskusstvennogo-intellekta-rukovodstvo-dlya-buduschego-70010044/chitat-onlayn/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


Heyn, Berlins Wonderful Horse.




2


Pfungst, Clever Hans.




3


Clever Hans Again.




4


Pfungst, Clever Hans.




5


Pfungst.




6


Lapuschkin et al., Unmasking Clever Hans Predictors.




7


See the work of philosopher Val Plumwood on the dualisms of intelligence-stupid, emotional-rational, and master-slave. Plumwood, Politics of Reason.




8


Turing, Computing Machinery and Intelligence.




9


Von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain, 44. This approach was deeply critiqued by Dreyfus, What Computers Cant Do.




10


See Weizenbaum, On the Impact of the Computer on Society, After his death, Minsky was implicated in serious allegations related to convicted pedophile and rapist Jeffrey Epstein. Minsky was one of several scientists who met with Epstein and visited his island retreat where underage girls were forced to have sex with members of Epsteins coterie. As scholar Meredith Broussard observes, this was part of a broader culture of exclusion that became endemic in AI: As wonderfully creative as Minsky and his cohort were, they also solidified the culture of tech as a billionaire boys club. Math, physics, and the other hard sciences have never been hospitable to women and people of color; tech followed this lead. See Broussard, Artificial Unintelligence, 174.




11


Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason, 2023.




12


Greenberger, Management and the Computer of the Future, 315.




13


Dreyfus, Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence.




14


Dreyfus, What Computers Cant Do.




15


Ullman, Life in Code, 13637.




16


See, as one of many examples, Poggio et al., Why and When Can Deep  but Not Shallow  Networks Avoid the Curse of Dimensionality.




17


Quoted in Gill, Artificial Intelligence for Society, 3.




18


Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 30.




19


Daston, Cloud Physiognomy.




20


Didi-Huberman, Atlas, 5.




21


Didi-Huberman, 11.




22


Franklin and Swenarchuk, Ursula Franklin Reader, Prelude.




23


For an account of the practices of data colonization, see Colonized by Data; and Mbemb, Critique of Black Reason.




24


Fei-Fei Li quoted in Gershgorn, Data That Transformed AI Research.




25


Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 1.




26


Bledsoe quoted in McCorduck, Machines Who Think, 136.




27


Mattern, Code and Clay, Data and Dirt, xxxiv-xxxv.




28


Ananny and Crawford, Seeing without Knowing.




29


Any list will always be an inadequate account of all the people and communities who have inspired and informed this work. Im particularly grateful to these research communities: FATE (Fairness, Accountability, Transparency and Ethics) and the Social Media Collective at Microsoft Research, the AI Now Institute at NYU, the Foundations of AI working group at the cole Normale Suprieure, and the Richard von Weizs?cker Visiting Fellows at the Robert Bosch Academy in Berlin.




30


Saville, Towards Humble Geographies.




31


For more on crowdworkers, see Gray and Suri, Ghost Work; and Roberts, Behind the Screen.




32


Canales, Tenth of a Second.




33


Zuboff, Age of Surveillance Capitalism.




34


Cetina, Epistemic Cultures, 3.




35


Emotion Detection and Recognition (EDR) Market Size.




36


Nelson, Tu, and Hines, Introduction, 5.




37


Danowski and de Castro, Ends of the World.




38


Franklin, Real World of Technology, 5.




39


Brechin, Imperial San Francisco.




40


Brechin, 29.




41


Agricola quoted in Brechin, 25.




42


Quoted in Brechin, 50.




43


Brechin, 69.




44


See, e. g., Davies and Young, Tales from the Dark Side of the City; and Grey Goldmine.




45


For more on the street-level changes in San Francisco, see Bloomfield, History of the California Historical Societys New Mission Street Neighborhood.




46


Street Homelessness. See also Counterpoints: An Atlas of Displacement and Resistance.




47


Gee, San Francisco or Mumbai?




48


H.W. Turner published a detailed geological survey of the Silver Peak area in July 1909. In beautiful prose, Turner extolled the geological variety within what he described as slopes of cream and pink tuffs, and little hillocks of a bright brick red. Turner, Contribution to the Geology of the Silver Peak Quadrangle, Nevada, 228.




49


Lambert, Breakdown of Raw Materials in Teslas Batteries and Possible Breaknecks.




50


Bullis, Lithium-Ion Battery.




51


Chinese Lithium Giant Agrees to Three-Year Pact to Supply Tesla.




52


Wald, Tesla Is a Battery Business.




53


Scheyder, Tesla Expects Global Shortage.




54


Wade, Teslas Electric Cars Arent as Green.




55


Business Council for Sustainable Energy, 2019 Sustainable Energy in America Factbook. U.?S. Energy Information Administration, What Is U.?S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source?




56


Whittaker et al., AI Now Report 2018.




57


Parikka, Geology of Media, vii  viii; McLuhan, Understanding Media.




58


Ely, Life Expectancy of Electronics.




59


Sandro Mezzadra and Brett Neilson use the term extractivism to name the relation between different forms of extractive operations in contemporary capitalism, which we see repeated in the context of the AI industry. Mezzadra and Neilson, Multiple Frontiers of Extraction.




60


Nassar et al., Evaluating the Mineral Commodity Supply Risk of the US Manufacturing Sector.




61


Mumford, Technics and Civilization, 74.




62


See, e. g., Ayogu and Lewis, Conflict Minerals.




63


Burke, Congo Violence Fuels Fears of Return to 90s Bloodbath.




64


Congo s Bloody Coltan.




65


Congo s Bloody Coltan.




66


Transforming Intels Supply Chain with Real-Time Analytics.




67


See, e. g., an open letter from seventy signatories that criticizes the limitations of the so-called conflict-free certification process: An Open Letter.




68


Responsible Minerals Policy and Due Diligence.




69


In The Elements of Power, David S. Abraham describes the invisible networks of rare metals traders in global electronics supply chains: The network to get rare metals from the mine to your laptop travels through a murky network of traders, processors, and component manufacturers. Traders are the middlemen who do more than buy and sell rare metals: they help to regulate information and are the hidden link that helps in navigating the network between metals plants and the components in our laptops [89].




70


Responsible Minerals Sourcing.




71


Liu, Chinese Mining Dump.




72


Bayan Obo Deposit.




73


Maughan, Dystopian Lake Filled by the Worlds Tech Lust.




74


Hird, Waste, Landfills, and an Environmental Ethics of Vulnerability, 105.




75


Abraham, Elements of Power, 175.




76


Abraham, 176.




77


Simpson, Deadly Tin Inside Your Smartphone.




78


Hodal, Death Metal.




79


Hodal.




80


Tully, Victorian Ecological Disaster.




81


Starosielski, Undersea Network, 34.




82


See Couldry and Mej?as, Costs of Connection, 46.




83


Couldry and Mej?as, 574.




84


For a superb account of the history of undersea cables, see Starosielski, Undersea Network.




85


Dryer, Designing Certainty, 45.




86


Dryer, 46.




87


Dryer, 266-68.




88


More people are now drawing attention to this problem  including researchers at AI Now. See Dobbe and Whittaker, AI and Climate Change.




89


See, as an example of early scholarship in this area, Ensmenger, Computation, Materiality, and the Global Environment.




90


Hu, Prehistory of the Cloud, 146.




91


Jones, How to Stop Data Centres from Gobbling Up the Worlds Electricity. Some progress has been made toward mitigating these concerns through greater energy efficiency practices, but significant long-term challenges remain. Masanet et al., Recalibrating Global Data Center Energy  Use Estimates.




92


Belkhir and Elmeligi, Assessing ICT Global Emissions Footprint; Andrae and Edler, On Global Electricity Usage.




93


Strubell, Ganesh, and McCallum, Energy and Policy Considerations for Deep Learning in NLP.




94


Strubell, Ganesh, and McCallum.




95


Sutton, Bitter Lesson.




96


AI and Compute.




97


Cook et al., Clicking Clean.




98


Ghaffary, More Than 1,000 Google Employees Signed a Letter. See also Apple Commits to Be 100 Percent Carbon Neutral; Harrabin, Google Says Its Carbon Footprint Is Now Zero; Smith, Microsoft Will Be Carbon Negative by 2030.




99


Powering the Cloud.




100


Powering the Cloud.




101


Powering the Cloud.




102


Hogan, Data Flows and Water Woes.




103


Off Now.




104


Carlisle, Shutting Off NSAs Water Gains Support.




105


Materiality is a complex concept, and there is a lengthy literature that contends with it in such fields as STS, anthropology, and media studies. In one sense, materiality refers to what Leah Lievrouw describes as the physical character and existence of objects and artifacts that makes them useful and usable for certain purposes under particular conditions. Lievrouw quoted in Gillespie, Boczkowski, and Foot, Media Technologies, 25. But as Diana Coole and Samantha Frost write, Materiality is always something more than mere matter: an excess, force, vitality, relationality, or difference that renders matter active, self-creative, productive, unproductive. Coole and Frost, New Materialisms, 9.




106


United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Review of Maritime Transport, 2017.




107


George, Ninety Percent of Everything, 4.




108


Schlanger, If Shipping Were a Country.




109


Vidal, Health Risks of Shipping Pollution.




110


Containers Lost at Sea2017 Update.




111


Adams, Lost at Sea.




112


Mumford, Myth of the Machine.




113


Labban, Deterritorializing Extraction. For an expansion on this idea, see Arboleda, Planetary Mine.




114


Ananny and Crawford, Seeing without Knowing.




115


Wilson, Amazon and Target Race.




116


Lingel and Crawford, Alexa, Tell Me about Your Mother.




117


Federici, Wages against Housework; Gregg, Counterproductive.




118


In The Utopia of Rules, David Graeber details the sense of loss experienced by white-collar workers who now have to enter data into the decision-making systems that have replaced specialist administrative support staff in most professional workplaces.




119


Smith, Wealth of Nations, 45.




120


Marx and Engels, Marx-Engels Reader, 479. Marx expanded on this notion of the worker as an appendage in Capital, vol. 1: In handicrafts and manufacture, the worker makes use of a tool; in the factory, the machine makes use of him. There the movements of the instrument of labor proceed from him, here it is the movements of the machine that he must follow. In manufacture the workers are parts of a living mechanism. In the factory we have a lifeless mechanism which is independent of the workers, who are incorporated into it as its living appendages. Marx, Das Kapital, 54849.




121


Luxemburg, Practical Economies, 444.




122


Thompson, Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.




123


Thompson, 8890.




124


Werrett, Potemkin and the Panopticon, 6.




125


See, e. g., Cooper, Portsmouth System of Manufacture.




126


Foucault, Discipline and Punish; Horne and Maly, Inspection House.




127


Mirzoeff, Right to Look, 58.




128


Mirzoeff, 55.




129


Mirzoeff, 56.




130


Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.




131


Irani, Hidden Faces of Automation.




132


Yuan, How Cheap Labor Drives Chinas A.?I. Ambitions; Gray and Suri, Humans Working behind the AI Curtain.




133


Berg et al., Digital Labour Platforms.




134


Roberts, Behind the Screen; Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet, 11140.




135


Silberman et al., Responsible Research with Crowds.




136


Silberman et al.




137


Huet, Humans Hiding behind the Chatbots.




138


Huet.




139


See Sadowski, Potemkin AI.




140


Taylor, Automation Charade.




141


Taylor.




142


Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.




143


Standage, Turk, 23.




144


Standage, 23.




145


See, e. g., Aytes, Return of the Crowds, 80.




146


Irani, Difference and Dependence among Digital Workers, 225.




147


Pontin, Artificial Intelligence.




148


Menabrea and Lovelace, Sketch of the Analytical Engine.




149


Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, 3943.




150


Babbage evidently acquired an interest in quality-control processes while trying (vainly) to establish a reliable supply chain for the components of his calculating engines.




151


Schaffer, Babbages Calculating Engines and the Factory System, 280.




152


Taylor, Peoples Platform, 42.




153


Katz and Krueger, Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements.




154


Rehmann, Taylorism and Fordism in the Stockyards, 26.




155


Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 56, 67; Specht, Red Meat Republic.




156


Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management.




157


Marx, Poverty of Philosophy, 22.




158


Qiu, Gregg, and Crawford, Circuits of Labour; Qiu, Goodbye iSlave.




159


Markoff, Skilled Work, without the Worker.




160


Guendelsberger, On the Clock, 22.




161


Greenhouse, McDonalds Workers File Wage Suits.




162


Greenhouse.




163


Mayhew and Quinlan, Fordism in the Fast Food Industry.




164


Ajunwa, Crawford, and Schultz, Limitless Worker Surveillance.




165


Mikel, WeWork Just Made a Disturbing Acquisition.




166


Mahdawi, Dominos Pizza Checker Is Just the Beginning.




167


Wajcman, How Silicon Valley Sets Time.




168


Wajcman, 1277.




169


Gora, Herzog, and Tripathi, Clock Synchronization.




170


Eglash, Broken Metaphor, 361.




171


Kemeny and Kurtz, Dartmouth Timesharing, 223.




172


Eglash, Broken Metaphor, 364.




173


Brewer, Spanner, TrueTime.




174


Corbett et al., Spanner, 14, cited in House, Synchronizing Uncertainty, 124.




175


Galison, Einsteins Clocks, Poincars Maps, 104.




176


Galison, 112.




177


Colligan and Linley, Media, Technology, and Literature, 246.


