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             750  1150  ,    ,     ,    .

      .   . ,          ,        ,   -             [3 - ,         ,   . : Elton L. Daniel, "The Islamic East," in The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries, ed. Chase F. Robinson, The New Cambridge History of Islam (Cambridge, 2010), 1:45979. . : S. Frederick Starr, "In Defense of Greater Central Asia," Policy Paper, Central Asia-Caucasus Institute / Silk Road Studies Program, 2008, http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/Silkroadpapers/0809GCA.pdf (http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/Silkroadpapers/0809GCA.pdf).].    ,   ,     ,   ,         . ,    ,             [4 - Daniel, "The Islamic East". . 449.],       ,             .

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     ,       ,    -   .         ,       -   ,             .        .      堖 2   233   ,       ,      .         .

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-,             ,         .      ,     , ,           .  ,      400        ,   240        ,        . ,  ,  180 ,     22[7 - John. J. O'Connor and Edmund. F. Robertson, "Abu Ali al-Husain Ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna)," http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Avicenna.html (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Avicenna.html);E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Biruni (or Beruni), Abu Rayhan," in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C. G. Gillispie (New York, 1981), 2:152.].      .          , ,   ,        ,     .    ,    ,           ,   .  13       ,    7%  ,   .           ,     .       ,           .

        .        -,   ,     .                    ,       [8 - .     -   ,    ,    -         . D. King, "Too Many Cooks A New Account of the Earliest Muslim Geodetic Measurements," Suhayl 1 (2000): 20741.].    ,           .       ,      ,   ,      .       ,       ,  ,           .   ,       ,      ,       .      蠖       堖 ,     ,            .

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  -  ,       .          .       ,     ,   컠    . -        ,  - ,    ,   .   - (  ,    )       .        ,                 .                 .        XVII [10 - G. B. Nicolosi and J. L. Berggren, "The Mathematical Sciences," in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, ed. M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth (Paris, 19922005), 4:192.].

       ,    ,   ,       .   ,                ,      .      ,    ,     .       ,     ,     .       ,   ,      ,     ,         [11 - A. Youschkevitch and B. A. Rosenfeld, "Al-Khayyami (or Khayyam)," in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 7:330.].  ,  ,   700   .

          ,          .           .     ,           .       .       .              ,     ,      .      ,    .   ,            .   ,    ,    -,       .     -  ,    ,        [12 -  .            . , 1973. . 5056.].        ,       [13 -   .  / . . . . . ., 1995. . 348.].

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      ,     ,  ,          [15 - .  11,  .: Akbar S. Ahmed, "Al-Beruni, The First Anthropologist," RAIN, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 60 (February 1984): 910.].    ,           .  :   (15831645),   (15881679),    (16321694)    (16321704)    ,   .    (      ,  )    ,       .   ( ,    )   - (   )       ,    [16 -  .  . .: , 1983; -:     XI   -. .; .: , 1949.].  - (    )       .   ,   ,       ,       [17 - Goodman, Islamic Humanism, 8.].

    蠖 .            ,        ;           ,     . ,                 ,   .      ,      .      ,          ,   ,    [18 - M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, and R. B. Serjeant, eds., Religion, Learning and Science in the Abbasid Period (Cambridge, 1990), 395.].      ,               [19 - Adam Mez, Die Renaissance des Islams (Heidelberg, 1922), . : Joel Kraemer, Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam (Leiden, 1986), 3.].

,     ,     ,        .           ,        .       ,        .        .

,      ,     .       ,         ,     -  ,     .       堖   ,  堖  ,  堖     .   ,             ,    , 堖 .           ,      .        ,     780 ,           [20 - Rosamond McKitterick, "Eighth Century Foundations," in The New Cambridge Medieval History, ed. McKitterick (Cambridge, 1995), 2:709.],        ,     .             ,     ,      ,      ,    .

          ?      ,    ,      ,    ,  , ,   .   ,      [21 - Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "The Achievements of Ibn Sina in the Field of Science and His Contributions to Its Philosophy," Islam and Science 1, 2 (December 2002), http://find.galegroup.com/itx/printdoc.do?contentSet=IAC-Documents&docType-IAC&isll (http://find.galegroup.com/itx/printdoc.do?contentSet=IAC-Documents&docType-IAC&isll).].     ,    ,       ,       ,       ,    .             [22 -       : Peter Dolmnick, The Clockwork Universe: Isaac Newton, the Royal Society, and the Birth of the Modern World (New York, 2011).].              .

         .        ,     ,       .         , .       ,             .   ,     -,   -   -,    .

     ,         .   ࠖ  ,  ,  ࠖ    -;  ,    ,    - (  ),       [23 - C. E. Bosworth, "Legal and Political Sciences in the Eastern Iranian World," in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 4:133.].           ,         .  ,        -  ;    ( )    ,     .       ,    ,   .             ,   - ,          .

        .      (      )            .            .    ,  ,       .       ,        ,   ,        .   ,     ,         .

    .  11081109    ( )          .     ,      ,   1157 ,     .       (    ):         -.          II ,     , ,  .                    .                      -    .            .  ,          (XII )         [24 -           : Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 13001500 (Berkeley, 2002).].

       .                     .     (  )       ,            .              ,            ,      .         ,       ,     .

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     ,        :          .   -   ,            ,     ,   .   ( )        . ,       [26 - J. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (New York, 1958), 143; .      : Joel L. Kraemer, Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam, 1112.].




 


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   ,     1000  ,    ,  ,      ,   . ,              ,        ,      .      : ,       ,   ,    ,   [29 - Richard N. Frye, The Golden Age of Persia (London, 1975), 150.].  - XI        ,     ,      415     [30 -    - (9611039)   A. Afsahzod, "Persian Literature," in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 4:370.].           ,     .         ,   蠖       90%   [31 - .  6. . :  .            . . 42.].            ,     .  ,        ,    .

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           .                ,     .                    ,    [32 -                  .: Fredrik T. Hiebert and Robert H. Dyson, Jr., "Prehistoric Nishapur and the Frontier Between Central Asia and Iran," Iranica Antiqua 37 (2002): 11329.].  ,  -  -   䠖    ,    .

   ,               ,    .  ,          ,   .    ,       ,    ,         [33 - Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford, 1998), 210.].                 ,    ,            .    ,           ,       ,     ,      ,       .

  ,         ,   ,           .  ,   ,    ,    ,     ,  .    ,              ,   ,   (    ,     ),     -   .   ,   ,   ,   .      ,   - ,             ,        .          ,           .          ( 1115  1145 )[34 - Charles K. Wilkinson, Nishapur: Some Early Islamic Buildings and Their Decoration, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, 1986), 43.],     ,       ,        .

         ,       .       ,      ,       . ,     -         ,             ,       (  ).               ,    -.            ,    .  ,                ,        .

       ,     ?  ,    .                         :   ,      [35 -  .  / . . . . . ., 1995. . 161.].        ,         .            ,       .       軠 ,           1927     ,           .    ,       :  ,        ,    ,                 -.  -,        ,              . ,       ,     ,      .        .    ,   ,       ,     ,       ,       .

       ,    蠖          ,            .  ,          (    ) ,       ,      .         ,      ,    .          ,   ,    ,          .                       ,           .

               ,   .             ,      .    ( , - ,  )   堖 ,   ,     (),    .   , ,               .      ,     ,  ,            ,   .

 ,  ,   ,   ,  ,     . ,   ,    ,     .            ?     ,  ,    XVIII ,  ,     ,       ?  ,      ,  300 ,             .                 ,    - ,   ,   ?[36 - Souren Melikian, "Islamic Culture: Groundless Myth," New York Times, Special Report, November 56, 2011.]     ,   ,      , ,       ?[37 - Judah Rosenthal, "Hiwi al-Balkhi, A Comparative Study," Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series, 38, 3 (January 1948): 31742; Sarah Stroumsa, "Ibn al Rawandi and His Baffling 'Book of the Emerald,'" Freethinkers of Medieval Islam (Leiden, 1999), chap. 2.]




 :  ,   


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          .      ,         ,   ,       , ,   ,     젖     .     ,     , ,    ,      ,   [41 - Al-Nadim, The Fihrist of al-Nadim, ed. and trans. Bayard Dodge, 2 vols. (New York, 1970), 2:73536.].       , ,     ,     [42 -  Boaz Shoshan, "High Culture and Popular Culture in Medieval Islam," Studia Islamica 73 (1991): 67107     ,       .],        .      ,     ,  젖     ,      ,        .                         .

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                     ,   , -  -    .   ,         ,      V        (), XV .    , ,    ,      . 堖   ,    ( )      XV ,   .     ,      .           ,           [43 -  .   .       . .: , 1981.].

       ,           ,             .      ,         ,   .      ,       - ,          ,   .

      ,              ,    ,         ,   .       ,     .             ,          ,           ,   [44 - Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Islamic Art and Architecture 6501250 (New Haven, 2001), 135.].                  ,     ,         ,       ,    .         ,          ,            .

  -,  ,    :    ?  ,    ,         XII    ,    ,  ,          ,        ?[45 - Frances Gies and Joseph Gies, Women in the Middle Ages (New York, 1978), chap. 5.] ,    ,      ,        [46 - .  8.].         ,        .         ,       [47 - Camille Adams Helminski, ed., Women of Sufism: A Hidden Treasure (Boston, 2003), 46ff.].

                 .      ,   ,    ,   ,      ,            [48 - Manuela Mar?n, "Women, Gender and Sexuality," in Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century, ed. Robert Irwin, New Cambridge History of Islam (Cambridge, 2010), 4:372.].    ,        ,     .

,       ,         .  ,    ,   ,      ,  ,  , ,        ,      [49 - Richard N. Frye, "Women in Pre-Islamic Central Asia: The Khatun of Bukhara," in Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety, ed. Gavin R. G. Hambly (New York, 1999), 6364.]. , ,       . ,              ,      ,      [50 - Richard N. Frye, Narshaki, The History of Bukhara, (Cambridge, 1954), 3739;  . . . . 1.     . ., 1963. . 312; Frye, "Women in Pre-Islamic Central Asia," 6567.].   ,         ,          .     ()      .    ,    ,   ,    ,     ,    ,      [51 - Lenn E. Goodman, Avicenna (London, 1992), 27.].

             ,            .    ,      XI       ,   ,  ,       ()       [52 - Priscilla Soucek, "Timurid Women: A Cultural Perspective," in Women in the Medieval Islamic World, 199226.].   ,      XIII  ,        ,        [53 - Michal Biran, Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia (London, 1997), 2.].       ,             .

,      ,     ,      .             .      ,              . ,        , , ,          ,        ,         ,         .

,      ,         ,    XII .        (, ,      )           .    ,   ,         .

       .




 2

     



  ,      660 ,      .      .   ,         ,    .      ,  ,    .             .             .            ,         ,      .

      .         ,   I    ,        .             ,  [54 -  . .   . ., 1966; Pierre Leriche, "Bactria, Land of a Thousand Cities," in After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam, ed. Joe Cribb and Georgina Herrmann, Proceedings of the British Academy, no. 133 (London, 2007), 12425.]. -           .

   ,          , ,    70     ( 蠖 ),     .              .      4,5 .  ,   ,     ,   120  [55 -          (DAFA),  , 4  2012.].   ,   ,      ,      ,        .    ,          堖 - .        .  ,        ,       ,        ,         ,   ,       ,   ,            .           -   ,     .          .        .

   , :   ,  -,         ,      ,         [56 -       . .: Rodney S. Young, "The South Wall of Balkh-Bactra," American Journal of Archaeology 59, 4 (October 1955): 26776; and M. Le Berre and D. Schlumberger, "Observations sur les remparts de Bactres," in Monuments preislamiques d'Afghanistan, Memoires de la Dlgation archologique Fran?aise en Afghanistan, ed. Bruno Dagens, Marc le Berre, and Daniel Schlumberger (Paris, 1964), 9:67ff.].          !      ,       (,   ),        ,   ,    ,    ,    . ,                 [57 -    ,  ,         (),    ,          . .:  . .     . . . , 1981. . 43  .;     -    , ,              (-, 1897, 128,  : . . .  8. .: , 1973. . 7497.].








         ,       100400 . ,          [58 - Young, "The South Wall of Balkh-Bactra," 275.]     ,        ,   ,       [59 -      .: Schwartz, "Bemerkungen zu den arabischen Nachrichten uber Balkh," in Oriental Studies in Honor of Cursetji Erachji Pavry (London, 1933), 43443.].  ,       ,        ,       [60 - W. Barthold, An Historical Geography of Iran, ed. C. E. Bosworth (Princeton, 1984), 17.].            .

          .     (    )        .     2 . [61 - G. V. Shishkina, "Ancient Samarkand: Capital of Soghd," Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, 8 (1994): 81100.      .:  . .,  . .,  . .    . , 1973.].   ,   ,   4 .       [62 - Y. F. Buryakov et al., The Cities and Routes of the Great Silk Road (Tashkent, 1999), 54ff.].        .     ,    500   [63 -    ,  ,      . .       ( -   ,  7) (, 1963., . 213224).].            ()  ,        ;     25,7.    ,        ,      ,        .         250,       ,    .   10   ,      [64 - A. B. Yazbderdiev, "The Ancient Merv and Its Libraries," Journal of Asian Civilizations 23, 2 (December 2000), 138.].       ,        ,        [65 -         : Georgina Herrmann, Monuments of Merv: Traditional Buildings of the Karakum (London, 1999).]. -  ,  ,   ,       . ,      ,       ,             .

     ,          ,      ,   -     [66 -    :  . .    ( ,    (IIII   ..). , 1973. . 99125.  . .        (     :   ) (, 1973.). . . -    (150 000   , 80 000    ..)  : Archaeological Research on Central Asia of the Muslim Period,"World Archaeology 14, 3 (February 1983): 394.      .      (., 1948)      (., 1948).].      :  ( )[67 -  . .,  . .  / . , 2009. . 89, 122  .],   , ,     , ,     . ,      ,     -   ,  (-)  ,     [68 -  . .       . , 1998. . 4760, 145148.],   ,      .

                 .      ,        ,        .      ( )   ,        ,   , ,   ,   .      ࠖ 40 000 頖   ,    ,           .  ,         ,      [69 - Buryakov et al., The Cities and Routes of the Great Silk Road, 106.].

    ,             ,   .         .             ,      ,      ,      .   ,       ,       .    . ʸ   -     ,   ,    [70 -        .:  . .         . .: 1958.. . 149167.].         ,       .        蠖        .   ,           ,      [71 - .    (VIVIII.) : -. , : N. N. Negmatov, "Utrushana, Ferghana, Chach, and Ilak," in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 3:259, 264.].      ,             ,   ,       [72 - G. L. Semenov, "Excavations at Paikend," in The Art and Archaeology of Ancient Persia, ed. Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Robert Hillenbrand, and J. M. Rogers (London, 1998).].

     .   ,   230270   0,4     [73 -  . .       . ., 1986. . 88. .      , ,   ..  . .      (VIXIII.). -, 1973. . 256268.].   4/5        35 . , ,  ,         .        ,          ,       ,    .   II          ,    ![74 - . . .  .]       ,       .

,    ,     [75 - V. A. Litvinsky, "Cities and Urban Life in the Kushan Kingdom," in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, ed. J. Harmatta (Paris, 19922005), 2:291312; . :   / . . . . ., 1964. . 1:471 (  ).]         ,      ,    .           ,     .           .








      (  ),          頖          .     ,       ,              .      -                 ,   .

    ,  ,    XI         [76 -   : Eric Gustav Carlson, "The Abbey Church of Saint-Etienne at Caen in the Eleventh and Early Twelfth Centuries," PhD dissertation, Yale, 1967.].   ,    ,   , ,    ,             .     ?           ,          VII   [77 - Peter Draper, "Islam and the West: The Early Use of the Pointed Arch Revisited," Architectural History 48 (2005): 19.].        ,           ,   .             .  , ,           .  ,           .      ,         .

    ,       ,   蠖 ,              .          ,     .        ,     .

   ,            .     ,   ,   , ,  ,              .

             .           5000- ,       .  4000     -  ,  -  ,      [78 -  . . , 2006. . 36. . :  . . , 2009.].          ,    , ,  ,    .   ,         .         (   )   ,      [79 - Jim G. Shaffer, "The Later Prehistoric Periods," in The Archaeology of Afghanistan from Earliest Times to the Timurid Period, ed. F. R. Allchin and Norman Hammond (London, 1978), 114.].

                . ,     ,     -, ,     ,    ()              , ,   .  ,                     .            .          1900     100    ,               [80 - Fredrik T. Hiebert, Kakamurad Kurbansakhatov, A Central Asian Village at the Dawn of Civilization: Excavations at Anau, Turkmenistan, University Museum Monograph, no. 116 (Philadelphia, 2003); Peggy Champlin, Raphael Pumpelly, Gentleman Geologist of the Gilded Age (Tuscaloosa, 1994); S. Frederick Starr, "Raphael Pumpelly: Founder of U. S. Turkmen Cultural Ties," Miras 2 (2010): n.p.].

,             ,     ,  ,      .       25        3000    [81 - Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (New York, 2012), 148.].                    ,      ,      ,    ,  ,    .









    ?


     . , ,      ,  ,      ,   ,        .                  -  ,    ,      ,   .                    ?  ,         ,     ?

    ,     . ,   ,     (     )    100      1200       ,      .  ,           III          ,   [82 -  . . . . 35.].    ,                     [83 - Sophia R. Bowlby, "The Geographical Background," in The Archaeology of Afghanistan, 17; Fredrik T. Hiebert, Origins of the Bronze Age Oasis Civilization in Central Asia (Cambridge, 1994), 1011.].              X ,     ,        ,    [84 -  : Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum (Leiden, 18701894).     : V. V. Barthold, Four Studies on the History of Central Asia, trans. V. and T. Minorsky (Leiden, 1956), 1:13.].          .  ,           XI [85 - Richard W. Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels in Early Islamic Iran (New York, 2009).].       .    ,       ,   ,      ,  .         ,  4000       ![86 -  . . , 2009. . 264267.]

     ?           ,   3000- -  ,      [87 -  .     . , 2003.].   ,     -   ,    .    ,  -     ?      ,  -          ,     ,    ?

     ,    .     ,      , 2400  ,          [88 - Naomi F. Miller, "Paleoethnobotanical Evidence for Deforestation in Ancient Iran: A Case Study of Urban Malyan," Journal of Ethnobiology 5 (1985): 121.].       ,                .

   ,         ,     ,    .               ,   .     ,      ,   . ,  -          ,          , -   .

 ,           .         ,  ,            ,     .   ,   ,       ,     .    ,   ,  ,   ,     ,    [89 -   :    ,   . .: , 2008.].           ,       .




 


    ,               .       ,  ,  ,    .          ,      .         ,                ,      젖 [90 -     .: Karl A. Wittfogel "The Hydraulic Civilizations," in Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, ed. William L. Thomas, Jr. Chicago, 1956, 15264.].                   (1957 ).               ,           .                 ,    .            ,           ,   .

    ,         ,     .       ,         ,    ,     .               .       ,        .

           ,     .  ,      ,          ,     ,   -.              .          ,       ,                      .     ,       ,     .   ,                      -   III [91 -           .: Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americans before Columbus (New York, 2005).].

           ,      [92 -    .: Renata Sala "Historical Survey of Irrigation Practices in West Central Asia," Laboratory of Geo-Archaeology, Centre of Geologo-Geographical Research, Ministry of Education and Science, Kazakhstan, http://lgakz.org/Texts/LiveTexts/7-CAsiaIrrigTextEn.pdf (http://lgakz.org/Texts/LiveTexts/7-CAsiaIrrigTextEn.pdf).].    ,           . ,     ,      .     .

         ,     ,     .          ,  .      ,   ,   ,              ,    ,         . ,      ,   ,       [93 -             .: Akhror Mukhtarov, Balkh in the Late Middle Ages (Bloomington, 1993), 7079.].  ,   ,       ,         ,      .    20  .       96,      .

                ,         .    ,     - ,      ,     .              ,      .                     [94 - A. M. Mukhamedzhanov, "Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age," in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 2:272.].

 䠖                  .  ,      ,      ,          . ,        ,   90         ,       .

                  ,       .        ,        ,    ,     ,      ,       [95 -      . .   . .            (   ). -, 1980. . 2448.].  ,   ,     ,   .  ,   XII       12 000     ,    300 ![96 -        X.    -: "Merv," in Historic Cities of the Islamic World, ed. C. Edmund Bosworth (Leiden, 2007), 401ff.]         ,     [97 - .  12.],                 .

          [98 -       : Louis Gardet, La cit musulmane, vie sociale et politique (Paris, 1954); .  Eckart Ehlers, "The City of the Islamic Middle East: A German Geographer's Perspective," in Papers in Honor of Professor Ehsan Yarshater, Iranica Varia, Textes et mmoirs (Leiden, 1990), 16:167176; Gustave E. von Grunebaum, Islam and Medieval Hellenism: Social and Cultural Perspectives (London, 1976), 2537;  R. B. Sergeant, ed., The Islamic City (Paris, 1980).].     .  XIIXIII               .           ,             .        ,               ,     .

      ,    ,  ,  .         .    ,      ,       .       ,   .    -,       ,     ,      .

    ,      ,  .   (, )           ,     .    , ,     .     ,      ,          .  ,                 .




  


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  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/stiven-starr/utrachennoe-prosveschenie-zolotoy-vek-centralnoy-azii-ot-arabskogo-zavoevaniya-do-vremen-tamerlana/)  .

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27


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29


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31


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32


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33


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39


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41


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43


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44


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45


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46


.  8.




47


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48


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49


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50


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51


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52


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53


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54


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55


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56


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57


   ,  ,         (),    ,          . .:  . .     . . . , 1981. . 43  .;     -    , ,              (-, 1897, 128,  : . . .  8. .: , 1973. . 7497.




58


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59


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60


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61


G. V. Shishkina, "Ancient Samarkand: Capital of Soghd," Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, 8 (1994): 81100.      .:  . .,  . .,  . .    . , 1973.




62


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63


   ,  ,      . .       ( -   ,  7) (, 1963., . 213224).




64


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65


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66


   :  . .    ( ,    (IIII   ..). , 1973. . 99125.  . .        (     :   ) (, 1973.). . . -    (150 000   , 80 000    ..)  : Archaeological Research on Central Asia of the Muslim Period,"World Archaeology 14, 3 (February 1983): 394.      .      (., 1948)      (., 1948).




67


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68


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69


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70


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71


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72


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73


 . .       . ., 1986. . 88. .      , ,   ..  . .      (VIXIII.). -, 1973. . 256268.




74


. . .  .




75


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76


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77


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78


 . . , 2006. . 36. . :  . . , 2009.




79


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80


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81


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82


 . . . . 35.




83


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84


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85


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86


 . . , 2009. . 264267.




87


 .     . , 2003.




88


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89


  :    ,   . .: , 2008.




90


    .: Karl A. Wittfogel "The Hydraulic Civilizations," in Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, ed. William L. Thomas, Jr. Chicago, 1956, 15264.




91


          .: Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americans before Columbus (New York, 2005).




92


   .: Renata Sala "Historical Survey of Irrigation Practices in West Central Asia," Laboratory of Geo-Archaeology, Centre of Geologo-Geographical Research, Ministry of Education and Science, Kazakhstan, http://lgakz.org/Texts/LiveTexts/7-CAsiaIrrigTextEn.pdf (http://lgakz.org/Texts/LiveTexts/7-CAsiaIrrigTextEn.pdf).




93


            .: Akhror Mukhtarov, Balkh in the Late Middle Ages (Bloomington, 1993), 7079.




94


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95


     . .   . .            (   ). -, 1980. . 2448.




96


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97


.  12.




98


      : Louis Gardet, La cit musulmane, vie sociale et politique (Paris, 1954); .  Eckart Ehlers, "The City of the Islamic Middle East: A German Geographer's Perspective," in Papers in Honor of Professor Ehsan Yarshater, Iranica Varia, Textes et mmoirs (Leiden, 1990), 16:167176; Gustave E. von Grunebaum, Islam and Medieval Hellenism: Social and Cultural Perspectives (London, 1976), 2537;  R. B. Sergeant, ed., The Islamic City (Paris, 1980).


